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MONUMENTS  OF  EGYPT; 


OR, 


EGYPT  A  WITNESS  FOE  THE  BIBLE. 


BY 


FRANCIS  I.  HAWKS,  D.D.,  II.  D. 


SBitjj  3ltostrntimi0. 


8ECOND    EDITION,    REVISED    AND    ENLARGED. 


NEW- YORK : 

GEO.  P.  PUTNAM,  155  BROADWAY 

LONDON:     JOHN    MURRAY. 

M.DCCC.L. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1849,  by 

G.  P.  Putnam, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District 
of  New- York. 


John  F.  Trow, 

Printer  and   Stereotyper, 

49  Ann-street,  New-York. 


/ 


^/  ;    i 


TO    THE 

RIGHT  REV.  BISHOP  BROWNELL, 

OF   CONNECTICUT, 

THIS    BOOK 

Ss  Ersprtfnlltj  Snsrritelr, 

IN   GRATEFVL    RECOGNITION   OF   THE   UNWAVERING   FRIENDSHIP 
OF   MANY    YEARS. 


PREFACE 


TO    THE    SECOND    EDITION. 


The  kind  reception  given  to  this  work  having  created  a 
demand  for  a  second  edition,  the  compiler  has  endeavored  to 
add  to  the  interest  of  the  book  by  the  insertion  of  a  new  chap- 
ter descriptive  of  localities  on  the  Nile,  derived  from  the  latest 
and  most  authentic  sources. 

To  make  room  for  the  insertion  of  this  new  matter,  the 
journal  appended  to  the  former  edition  has,  in  this,  been 
omitted. 

New-York,  March  1,  1850. 


CONTENTS. 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Interest  excited  by  Egypt. — Object  of  the  present  work. — Art  of  writing  very 
ancient  in  Egypt. — Egyptian  author,  Manetho. — Greek  writers,  Herodotus, 
Diodorus. — Work  of  Horapollo. — Modem  efforts  at  deciphering  the  hierogly- 
phics.— Father  Kircher. — Zoega. — Warburton's  hint. — Quatremere's  discovery. 
— Work  of  the  French  savans. — Discovery  of  the  Roeetta  stone, .        .        17 

CHAPTER  II. 

Rosetta  stone. — Specimens  of  the  inscription. — Dr.   Young's  discoveries. — De 

Sacy. — Akerblad. — Champollion  le   Jeune. — Discovery  of  homophones. — Sir 

Gardner  Wilkinson's  tribute  to  Champollion. — Exposure  of  the  ignorance  of 

the  French  savans,  by  Champollion, 32 

CHAPTER  III. 
Examples  of  Egyptian  writing. — Hieroglyphic. — Hieratic. — Demotic,        .        50 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Climate  of  the  Valley  of  the  Nile. — Extreme  dryness. — General  appearance  of 
Egyptian  ruins. — Temples,  tombs. — Arts  of  design  in  ancient  Egypt  68 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  V. 


Localities  of  the  Nile, 


81 


CHAPTER  VL 
Remarks  on  testimony. — Application  of  them  to  the  evidence  afforded  by  the 
monuments. — Facts  related  in  Abraham's  history,  tested  by  Egyptian  re- 
mains,  128 


CHAPTER  VII. 


Joseph, 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


The  bondage, 


The  deliverance, 


CHAPTER  IX. 


CHAPTER  X. 


The  wanderings, 


CHAPTER   XI. 

Direct  monumental  confirmation  of  Scriptural  history, 


167 


216 


233 


264 


286 


ILLUSTEATIONS. 


1.  Temple  of  Kamac, 

2.  Gerf  Hossien,  . 

3.  Map  of  the  Valley  of  the  Nile, 

4.  Aboo-Simbul, 

5.  Interior  of  a  Tomb, 

6.  Sphinx  and  Pyramids,  . 

7.  Koom-Ombos, 

8.  Egyptian  Chair,  .  . 

9.  Temple  of  Edfou,    . 

10.  Ruins  of  Luxor, 

11.  Temple  of  Medinet-Habou, 

12.  Statues  of  Memnon, 


Frontispiece. 

Title-paue. 

To  face  p.     68 

M  71 

■  75 

u  94 

"  122 

"  197 

•  80 
116 

«•  113 

"  115 


WOODCUTS  INSERTED   IN  THE  TEXT. 


13.  Tablet  of  Abydus,  ........ 

14.  Hieroglyphics  from  the  Rosetta  Stone,        ..... 

15.  Record  of  a  Marriage,    ...... 

16—22.  Hieroglyphic  Writing,    ....... 

23.  Appearance  of  the  Nile  during  an  inundation,  .  .  .  . 

REPRESENTATIONS     FROM    MONUMENTS   AND   TOMBS. 

24.  Negro  Captives,    ......... 

25.  Servant  and  her  Mistress,      ....... 

26.  A  party  of  Egyptian  Ladies,       ....... 

27.  Scribe  taking  account  of  Black  Slaves,        .  .  .  . 

28. White  Slaves, 

29.  Steward  overlooking  the  Tillage,  etc.,  ..... 

30.  Egyptian  mode  ol  bearing  on  the  head,  .  .  . 
31. Signet-rings  and  Bracelets,  ..... 

32.  Investing  with  the  Necklace,  ...... 

33.  Necklaces  and  Ornaments,  .  .  . 


34.  Egyptian  Granary,  ....... 

35.  Storing  Corn,  ........ 

36.  Egyptians  at  Meat,  .  ..... 

37.  Guests  at  an  Egyptian  Entertainment,  . 

38.  Casts  from  Egyptian  Sculptures,  ..... 

39.  Sculptures  supposed  by  some  to  represent  Joseph  and  his  Brethren,    . 

40.  Egyptian  Funeral  Procession,    ...... 

41.  The  Bastinado,  ........ 

42.  Brirkmaking,        ........ 

43.  Sentence  affixed  to  a  House,       ...... 

44.  Doorway  with  Name  upon  it,  .....  . 

45.  Working  of  Metals,    ........ 

46.  Figure  sculptured  at  Karnac— supposed  to  represent  a  King  of  Judah, 


PAGE. 

25 
35 
52 
56—66 
70 

74 
147 

.  148 
149 

.  149 
171 

.  174 
181 
184 

.      185 

.  190 
191 
196 
193 

.  199 
200 

.  213 
219 
223 

.  229 
229 
268 

.      289 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  compiler  of  the  following  pages  was  prompted  to  the 
work  partly  by  his  own  reflections,  and  partly  by  the  request 
of  a  friend,  who  thought  that  such  a  labor  might  be  useful 
to  the  cause  of  truth.  It  is  not  a  scientific  work,  nor  was  it 
penned  for  the  learned.  They  probably  will  have  already 
acquired,  in  their  studies,  all  the  information  they  can  gather 
from  its  pages. 

On  such  a  subject  as  this  book  presents,  to  have  attempted 
originality,  would  unavoidably  have  been  to  commit  error; 
for  its  simple  object  was  to  collect  into  a  plain  and  com- 
prehensible compend,  the  results  of  the  research  of  many 
different  inquirers  in  the  field  of  Egyptian  archaeology.  The 
writer,  therefore,  begs  leave  distinctly  to  disavow  all  claim  to 
the  merits  of  authorship.  He  aspires  here  to  no  more  than 
the  humble  office  of  a  compiler.  He  will  be  abundantly 
satisfied,  if  he  shall  be  found  to  have  so  used  the  materials, 
furnished  by  others  more  learned  than  himself,  as  to  have 
made  an  intelligible,  true,  and  readable  book. 

He  would  not  be  guilty  of  the  injustice  of  robbing  those 
to  whose  labors  he  has  been  so  largely  indebted.     He  has 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

used  them  without  hesitation  or  reserve,  wherever  they  could, 
in  his  view,  advance  the  cause  of  truth ;  because,  first,  he 
believed  of  many  of  them  that,  as  lovers  of  truth,  they  would 
not  withhold  such  use ;  and  next,  because  he  meant  distinctly 
to  declare  to  the  world,  as  he  has  done,  that  he  claims  to  be 
no  more  than  a  compiler.  He  has  often  referred  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  to  the  writer  from  whom  he  obtained  information, 
and  has  quoted  his  words ;  but  as  in  some  instances  this  is 
not  done,  he  begs  leave  to  make  a  general  acknowledg- 
ment, and  enumerate  the  principal  authors  to  whom  he  is 
indebted.  These  are  Champollion  le  Jeune,  Champollion 
Figeac,  Rosellini,  Young,  Spineto,  Lepsius,  Wilkinson,  Birch, 
Osborn,  Bunsen,  Kitto,  Hengstenberg,  and  the  "  Description  " 
of  the  French  savans. 

Had  there  been  precisely  such  a  work  as  is  here  attempted, 
accessible  to  English  readers,  the  writer  would,  with  becoming 
modesty,  have  withheld  his  efforts.  The  only  one  of  a  similar 
kind,  is  the  truly  learned  work  of  Hengstenberg,  "  Egypt  and 
the  Books  of  Moses ;"  very  well  translated  into  English  from 
the  German,  in  1843,  by  Mr.  Robbins,  then  of  the  Andover 
Seminary,  and  published  in  the  same  year.  But  this  work, 
valuable  as  it  confessedly  is,  (and  none  has  been  more  useful 
to  the  compiler,)  is  almost  too  learned  for  general  readers :  its 
arrangement  also  seemed  susceptible  of  improvement ;  but 
above  all,  there  was  additional  testimony  resting  in  the 
writings  of  others,  which  it  was  desirable  to  incorporate  with 
the  valuable  contributions  of  Hengstenberg.  Hence  the  pre- 
sent attempt. 

It  had  been  easy  to  make  the  work  more  full.  Many 
more  illustrations  and  confirmations  might  have  been  pro- 
duced, and  a  chapter  might  have  been  written  on  the  fulfil- 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

ment  of  prophecies  concerning  Egypt :  but  to  have  done  this, 
would  have  been,  in  some  measure  to  defeat  the  object  of  the 
work,  which  was,  to  select  the  plainest  and  most  intelligible 
proofs,  and  to  present  them  with  reasonable  brevity ;  in  the 
hope  that  without  wearisomeness  they  might  engage  the  atten- 
tion of  the  general  reader,  who  could  not  be  expected  to  find 
much  interest  in  evidence  that  could  be  made  plain  by  learned 
discussion  only. 

To  Mr.  Gliddon  undeniably  belongs  the  merit  of  having 
first  awakened  general  attention  in  the  United  States;  to  the 
very  interesting  subject  of  Egyptian  antiquities.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  his  labors  in  this  cause  will  attract  the  attention 
and  invite  the  research  of  such  of  our  young  countrymen  as 
may  have  the  means  and  opportunity  of  travel,  and  that  our 
own  country  may  thus  be  enabled  to  yield  her  contribution  to 
the  general  stock  of  Egyptian  archaeology. 

New- York,  September,  1849. 


EGYPT 

AND    ITS    MONUMENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Interest  excited  by  Egypt. — Object  of  the  present  work. — Art  of  writing  very 
ancient  in  Egypt. — Egyptian  author  Manetho. — Greek  writers,  Herodotus, 
Diodorus. — Work  of  Horapollo. — Modern  efforts  at  deciphering  the  hierogly- 
phics.— Father  Kircher. — Zoega. — Warburton's  hint. — Quatremere's  discovery. 
— Work  of  the  French  savans. — Discovery  of  the  Rosetta  stone. 

"Egypt. — This  country  offers  subjects  of  conversation  and 
meditation  which  no  traveller  can  entirely  neglect,  who- 
ever he  may  be,  if  he  have  eyes  to  sec,  a  memory  to  remem- 
ber, and  a  sprinkling  of  imagination  wherewith  to  dream. 
Who  can  be  indifferent  to  the  tableau  of  unaccountable 
Nature  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile :  at  the  spectacle  of  this 
river-land,  that  no  other  land  resembles?  Who  will  not  be 
moved  in  the  presence  of  this  people,  which  of  old  accom- 
plished such  mighty  deeds,  and  now  are  reduced  to  misery 
so  extreme  ?  Who  can  visit  Alexandria,  Cairo,  the  Pyramids, 
Heliopolis,  Thebes,  without  being  moved  by  reminiscences,. 
2 


18  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

the  most  imposing  and  the  most  diverse  ?  The  Bible,  Homer, 
Philosophy,  the  Sciences,  Greece,  Rome,  Christianity,  the 
Monks,  Islamism,  the  Crusades,  the  French  Revolution : 
almost  every  thing  great  in  this  world's  history  seems  to  con- 
verge into  the  pathway  of  him  who  traverses  this  memorable 
country  !  Abraham,  Sesostris,  Moses,  Helen,  Agesilaus,  Alex- 
ander, Pompey,  Caesar,  Cleopatra,  Aristarchus,  Plotinus,  Paco- 
mus,  Origen,  Athanasius,  Saladin,  St.  Louis,  Napoleon  !  what 
names  !  what  contrasts  !  ******  a  country  made 
to  occupy  eternally  the  world,  Egypt  appears  at  the  very 
origin  of  the  traditions  of  Judea  and  of  Greece.  Moses  issues 
from  her;  Plato,  Pythagoras,  Lycurgus,  Solon,  Herodotus, 
Strabo  and  Tacitus  enter  into  her  bosom  to  be  initiated  in  her 
sciences,  religion  and  laws." 

Thus  breaks  forth  the  enthusiasm  of  an  eloquent  French 
writer,  as  he  kindles  in  the  contemplation  of  a  favorite  theme. 
Without  participating  in  the  excitement  of  his  feelings,  it 
must  still  be  confessed,  that  there  is  an  absorbing  interest  in 
the  land  which  he  thus  glowingly  depicts.  The  attention 
that  it  has  excited  within  the  last  half  century  has  developed 
so  much,  which  neither  the  Christian  nor  the  scholar  is  willing 
to  neglect ;  that  patient  labor  still  employs  itself  in  research, 
undeterred  by  unusual  difficulties,  and  undisgusted  by  the  ex- 
aggerations of  the  too  credulous  archaeologist.  Persevering 
industry  will  overcome  the  one,  and  a  sound  judgment  affords 
a  corrective  to  the  other.  Nor  must  it  be  supposed  that  the 
exaggeration  is  all  on  one  side.  If  there  be  those  who  have 
prematurely  sounded  the  note  of  triumph  in  their  supposed 
discovery  of  monumental  testimony  that  disproves  the  truth 
of  the  sacred  records ;  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  that,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  are  some  who  have  found,  as  they  imagine, 


ANTIQUITY  OF  WRITING.  19 

in  certain  particulars,  evidence  for  the  Bible,  of  the  conclusive- 
ness of  w  uich,  even  the  sober-minded  Christian  will  entertain 
a  doubt.  He  who  is  best  acquainted  with  the  present  state  of 
Egyptian  discoveries,  cannot  but  feel,  that  our  knowledge  is 
yet  much  too  imperfect  on  some  points,  to  justify  over-confident 
assertion  or  critical  dogmatism.  From  the  tomb  of  past  ages, 
much  that  is  very  valuable  has  undoubtedly  been  disinterred  : 
that  much  yet  remains  to  be  unburied,  is  proved  by  the  con- 
stant accumulation  of  facts,  daily  added  to  our  already  exist- 
ing knowledge  of  Egyptian  antiquities.  It  is,  perhaps,  not 
saying  too  much  to  assert,  that,  with  our  present  materials,  any 
attempt  at  generalization  on  all  the  points  brought  to  our  notice 
by  a  study  of  Egyptian  archaeology,  is  premature,  and  as  to 
some  points,  must  terminate  in  erroneous  conclusions. 

The  object  of  the  present  volume,  therefore,  is  neither  to 
afford  a  connected  history  of  Egypt,  nor  to  furnish  the  reader 
with  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  every  inscription  or  represen- 
tation on  the  walls  of  its  venerable  ruins.  Its  less  ambitious, 
and  it  is  hoped  not  less  useful  aim,  is  to  bring  forward,  in  an 
intelligible  form,  certain  facts  that  appear  to  be  well  attested, 
and  thus  to  afford  to  the  reader  the  means  of  judging  for  him- 
self how  far  they  furnish  illustration  of,  or  give  direct  confirma- 
tion to,  the  truth  of  events  recorded  in  the  Scriptures. 

A  necessary  preliminary  to  the  performance  of  this  under- 
taking, is  a  recital  of  the  sources  of  information  we  possess 
in  matters  relating  to  Egypt;  and  particularly  an  account 
of  the  discoveries  made  in  hieroglyphical  interpretation  within 
the  last  half  century.     With  that,  therefore,  we  commence. 

Of  the  very  great  antiquity  of  writing  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  of  their  consequent  early  possession  of  books,  little 
doubt  seems  now  to  be  entertained  among  the  learned.     The 


20  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

inkstand  and  the  stylus  are  found  on  monuments  which  carry 
us  back  to  a  period  anterior,  as  is  supposed,  to  the  time  of 
which  we  have  any  recorded  history.  But  on  this  subject  we 
are  not  left  to  a  mere  inference  from  monumental  remains. 
The  earliest  writings  of  the  Egyptians,  are  believed  to  have 
been  contained  in  their  sacred  books.  For  our  knowledge  of 
these  writings  we  are  indebted  chiefly,  and  indeed  almost 
entirely,  to  Clemens  of  Alexandria.  He  is  entitled  to  belief, 
as  having  been  a  resident  in  Egypt,  if  not  a  native,  eminently 
learned,  and  of  unimpeachable  Christian  character.  His  life 
terminated  between  the  years  of  our  Lord  200  and  220 ;  and 
he  states  that  in  his  time  the  Egyptians  had  forty-two  sacred 
books.  These  books  were  divided  into  several  classes ;  one, 
for  instance,  was  on  medicine  ;  another  on  astronomy ;  a  third 
was  on  the  hieroglyphical  art,  and  consequently  taught  the 
rudiments  of  Egyptian  writing;  a  fourth  class  was  devoted 
to  religious  worship,  while  another  comprised  the  sacerdotal 
books,  and  bore  the  general  name  of  Hieratic  writings.  These 
last,  as  Clement  states,  treated  of  "  the  Laws,  the  Deities,  and 
the  entire  education  of  the  Priests." 

The  only  portion  of  these  writings  of  which  the  moderns 
are  as  yet  possessed,  is  in  what  Champollion  called  the 
"  Ritual,"  and  Lepsius  named  "  The  Book  of  the  Dead."  It 
was  originally  found  in  the  tombs  of  the  kings  at  Thebes,  in 
the  form  of  a  hieroglyphical  papyrus.  Its  pictorial  ornaments 
showed  that  it  treated  of  ceremonies  in  honor  of  the  dead,  and 
the  transmigration  of  souls.  Afterward,  Champollion  found  a 
much  more  perfect  copy  in  the  museum  of  Turin :  this  has 
been  published  by  Lepsius,  with  the  remark  that  "  this  book 
furnishes  the  only  example  of  a  great  Egyptian  literary  work, 
transmitted  from  the  old  Pharaonic  times."     It  possesses  one 


BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD.  21 

peculiarity  that  is  significant  of  its  great  antiquity ;  it  is 
written  in  the  pure  monumental  hieroglyphic  character,  while 
in  all  the  other  extant  remains  of  Egyptian  literature,  the 
hieratic  character  is  employed.  This  difference  is  important 
in  other  aspects,  to  which  we  advert  not  here,  as  the  object 
now  is  simply  to  illustrate  the  fact  of  the  great .  antiquity  of 
the  art  of  writing  in  Egypt. 

The  next  question  that  naturally  arises,  is  an  inquiry 
whether  any,  and  if  any,  what  historical  works  have  come 
down  to  our  day  from  Egyptian  authors?  The  answer  to 
this  must  be,  that  although  we  have  some  fragments,  of  which 
to  speak  presently,  yet  that  nothing  deserving  the  name  of  an 
authentic  and  continuous  history  concerning  ancient  Egypt, 
has  yet  been  found  in  her  monuments  or  elsewhere ;  while  of 
some  portions  of  that  history,  the  only  records  worthy  of  con- 
fidence, are  contained  in  the  Bible.  For  the  preservation  of 
these,  the  pride  of  a  tyrannical  Pharaoh  little  dreamed  that  it 
would  be  indebted  to  the  oppressed  victims  of  its  persecution. 
The  proud  triumphs  of  Egyptian  kings  are  lost  in  the  past, 
or  but  indistinctly  read  in  a  mysterious  language  on  the  de- 
caying walls  of  temples,  tombs,  and  palaces  ;  while  the  heart- 
less cruelties  that  preceded  the  exode  of  a  race,  outcasts  in 
Egypt  and  trampled  in  the  dust,  are  chronicled  by  the  pro- 
vidence of  God,  for  all  time,  on  imperishable  pages  : 

"  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them." 

Egypt  has  no  certain  history  of  her  ancient  greatness.  That 
her  "  sacred  books  did  not  contain  any  history  of  the  Egyptian 
nation,"  says  the  Chevalier  Bunsen,  "  is  no  less  certain  than 
that  the  Old  Testament  does  contain  that  of  the  Jews.     The 


22  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

idea  of  a  people  did  not  exist — still  less  that  of  a  people  of 
God,  the  Creator  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  History  was 
born  in  that  night,  when  Moses,  with  the  law  of  God,  moral 
and  spiritual,  in  his  heart,  led  the  people  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt." 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  fragments  of  Egyptian 
writers  have  come  down  to  our  days.  Of  these,  the  only  one 
worthy  of  note  is  Manetho.  He  lived  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  about  180  b.  c.  His  work,  originally  in  three 
volumes  or  books,  was  written,  it  is  said,  at  the  command  of 
Ptolemy,  and  is  now  lost.  All  that  we  have  of  it  is  to  be 
found  in  quotations  from  it,  in  the  writings  of  Josephus,  Euse- 
bius,  and  Syncellus.  The  last  of  these  quotes  from  two 
abbreviators  of  Manetho,  one  of  whom  was  Eratosthenes ; 
the  work  of  the  other  is  called  "  The  Old  Chronicle." 

Manetho  (as  Plutarch  informs  us)  was  a  priest  of  Seben- 
nytus ;  hence  he  is  sometimes  called  the  Sebennyte.  He  wrote 
in  the  Greek  language,  but  professed  to  draw  his  materials 
from  Egyptian  sources.  Manetho's  history,  like  that  of  many 
other  ancient  nations,  refers  the  origin  of  his  people  to 
gods  and  demigods,  who  reigned  for  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  years.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Sun  or  Phra,  whence 
came  the  name  Pharaoh,  as  a  generic  term  applied  to  all  the 
Egyptian  monarchs.  He  then  commences  with  the  reign  of 
men,  and  extends  his  list  of  sovereigns  over  an  incredibly 
long  period,  if  time  were  computed  then  as  it  is  now.  But  it  is 
no  part  of  the  purpose  of  the  present  work  to  enter  into  the 
much  disputed  question  of  Egyptian  chronology.  The  gen- 
eral reader  will  find  in  it  little  to  interest  him,  and  we  are  not 
presumptuous  enough  to  suppose  that  our  pages  will  furnish 
any  attraction  to  the  historical  antiquarian.     Beside,  without 


MANETHO.  23 

meaning  to  undervalue  chronology,  as  a  very  important  feature 
in  the  study  of  history,  we  may  yet  be  permitted  to  say  in  the 
words  of  a  modern  writer  on  Egypt,  that  "the  disclosures 
made  by  inscriptions  on  public  buildings,  of  kings,  wars,  and 
conquests,  may,  when  verified  as  to  age,  and  placed  in  their 
probable  order  by  the  aid  of  learning  and  criticism,  reveal 
more  as  to  the  dynasties  and  individual  sovereigns ;  but  on 
such  information,  even  when  free  from  doubt  and  most  accu- 
rate, little  real  value  can  be  set;  while  the  Bible  supplies, 
either  by  express  statement  or  obvious  implication,  facts  and 
principles  which  constitute  genuine  history,  and  go  far  to 
give  the  past  all  the  value  which  it  can  possess  for  the  men 
of  these  times." 

It  is  proper  to  add  that,  while,  among  the  learned  gene- 
rally, there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  Manetho  had  a  real 
existence,  and  wrote  what  has  been  preserved  in  quotations 
from  his  works ;  yet  there  have  not  been  wanting  some  who 
deem  the  writings  under  his  name  to  be  entirely  fabulous. 
The  learned  Hengstenberg  is  of  this  class.  In  his  work,  enti- 
tled "  Egypt  and  the  Books  of  Moses,"  he  devotes  an  entire 
article  in  his  appendix  to  this  subject ;  and,  with  great  inge- 
nuity, throws  more  than  the  shadow  of  a  suspicion  on  the 
authenticity  and  credibility  of  the  supposed  Egyptian  histo- 
rian. He  considers  the  work  to  be  spurious,  and  of  later  times 
than  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  In  this  conclusion 
we  are  not  prepared  entirely  to  acquiesce,  though  it  is  possible 
that  an  exaggerated  importance  may  have  been  given  by  some, 
to  the  writings  under  the  name  of  Manetho.  They  derive, 
however,  so  much  confirmation  from  the  discovery  of  what 
is  known  as  the  "  tablet  of  Abydus,"  that  their  entire  rejection 
as  authority  seems  scarcely  consistent  with  sound  criticism. 


24  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

The  tablet  of  Abydus,  which  is  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, is  delineated  on  the  opposite  page.  It  is  a  series  of 
royal  rings  inclosing  the  inaugural  titles  of  the  names  of  many 
of  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt,  in  the  order  of  their  succession. 
It  was  engraved  on  the  wall  of  one  of  the  vestibules  of  a  tem- 
ple, which  has  been  excavated  in  the  mountain  to  the  north 
of  the  city  of  Abydus.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be  concealed, 
that,  while  in  some  instances  it  confirms  Manetho's  lists,  in 
others,  it  is  directly  at  variance  with  them. 

Another  source  of  information  concerning  Egypt  is  in 
the  writings  of  Herodotus.  This  oldest  of  the  Greek  histo- 
rians was  born  about  484  b.  c,  and  having  from  political 
causes  become  an  exile  from  his  native  city,  he  travelled 
through  Greece,  Egypt,  Asia,  Scythia,  Thrace,  and  Mace- 
donia. His  work  is  divided  into  nine  books,  which  he  named 
after  the  nine  muses.  The  second  of  these,  Euterpe,  is 
devoted  to  Egypt,  and  contains  an  account  not  merely  of 
what  he  saw,  but  also  of  such  explanations  as  he  received 
from  the  Egyptian  priests,  together  with  observations  on  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  country,  and  a  long  dissertation 
on  the  succession  of  its  kings.  He  does  not  pretend,  in  this 
latter  subject,  to  observe  strict  chronological  order ;  and  his 
work  is  chiefly  valuable  when  brought  into  juxtaposition  with 
other  authorities  that  can  be  relied  on. 

Diodorus  Siculus  is  another  writer,  of  less  value,  however, 
than  Herodotus.  He  professes  to  treat  of  the  affairs  of  Egypt. 
He  visited  the  country  about  58  b.  c,  though  his  work 
was  written  at  a  later  period.  He  brought  to  his  task  (says 
Bunsen)  "a  mere  acquaintance  with  books,  without  either 
sound  judgment,  critical  spirit,  or  comprehensive  views.  He 
was  more  successful  consequently  in  complicating  and  mysti- 


26  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

fying,  than  in  sifting  and  illustrating  the  traditions  with  which 
he  had  to  deal."  This,  however,  will  probably  be  deemed  by 
some,  and  those  not  altogether  unlearned,  a  harsher  judgment 
than  Diodorus  deserves.  There  is  a  school  of  "  Egyptologists," 
as  they  somewhat  affectedly  style  themselves,  with  whom  it 
is  fashionable  to  depreciate  Diodorus ;  though  some  among 
them  can  and  do  quote  and  rely  on  him  when  his  testimony 
confirms  their  views.  That  Diodorus  often  betrays  a  want 
of  sound  judgment,  and  writes  silly  things,  may  be  true ; 
so  do  Herodotus  and  others,  at  times  ;  but  Diodorus  often 
relates  facts,  the  truth  of  which  is  established  by  other  testi- 
mony as  well  as  his.  The  Christian  student  of  Egyptian 
antiquities,  however,  is  at  no  loss  to  find  a  cause  for  the 
studied  depreciation  of  Diodorus.  To  these  might  be  added 
other  authorities  of  minor  importance  ;  while  of  all  it  may  be 
said  that  they  shed  little,  if  any,  light  upon  the  system  of 
hieroglyphic  writing,  and  certainly  none  upon  its  proper  inter- 
pretation. 

It  was  believed,  long  ago,  that  the  singular  devices  and  in- 
scriptions to  be  found  on  the  temples  and  tombs  of  Egypt,  were 
historical  documents  ;  and  that,  if  correctly  interpreted,  they 
would  probably  furnish  a  more  correct  account  of  the  early  con- 
dition of  this  ancient  and  long-civilized  nation,  than  could  be  de- 
rived from  any  other  source.  Many  obelisks  and  other  works  of 
art  may  still  be  seen  at  Rome,  which  had  been  carried  thither 
from  Egypt  by  the  emperors :  these  are  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphics, the  meaning  of  which  had  provoked  the  curiosity, 
and  stimulated  the  study,  of  men  of  letters,  almost  from  the 
period  of  the  revival  of  learning  in  Europe,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  classic  authors  of  Greece  and  Rome,  however, 
who  had  written  on  the  hieroglyphics,  without  understanding 


HORAPOLLO.  27 

them,  had  created  the  impression  that  their  correct  interpreta- 
tion had  been  so  studiously  concealed  by  the  priests,  and  was, 
withal,  so  imperfectly  understood  even  by  them,  that  it  had 
been  irrecoverably  lost  before  the  days  of  the  latter  emperors. 
Notwithstanding  this  discouraging  view,  however,  some 
among  the  moderns  ventured  to  hope  that  persevering  indus- 
try, added  to  critical  skill,  might  solve  the  mystery,  and  read 
this  strange  "  handwriting  on  the  wall."  There  was  known 
to  be  in  existence  a  work,  purporting  to  have  been  written  by 
Horapollo,  and  professing  to  give  a  meaning  to  some,  at  least, 
of  the  sculptured  figures  common  in  Egypt. 

Horapollo  was  an  Egyptian  scribe ;  but  he  did  not  live 
until  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  of  our  era  ;  and  conse- 
quently all  that  he  could  do  was  to  gather  the  traditionary  and 
fast  fading  interpretation  of  such  symbols  as  were  then  under- 
stood by  his  countrymen.  But  even  the  original  of  his  work, 
imperfect  as  it  must  necessarily  have  been,  was  lost ;  and  all 
that  remains  of  it  is  a  Greek  translation  made  by  Philip,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  lived  a  century  or  two  later  than  Horapollo, 
and  at  a  time  when  every  vestige  of  certain  knowledge,  in  the 
work  of  interpretation,  must  have  been  lost.  Philip  undoubt- 
edly introduced  new  matter  of  his  own  invention,  but  with  all 
its  imperfections,  the  book  was  not  without  value  in  the  earlier 
modern  efforts  at  interpretation  ;  and  is  at  least  curious,  as  being 
"  the  only  ancient  volume  entirely  devoted  to  the  task  of  unra- 
velling the  mystery  in  which  Egyptian  learning  has  been 
involved  ;  and  as  one,  which,  in  many  instances,  unquestiona- 
bly contains  the  correct  interpretation."*  One  of  the  earliest 
of  the  moderns,  in  the  field  as  an  interpreter,  was  the  learned 

*  A  very  beautiful  edition  of  Horapollo,  accompanied  with  an  English  transla- 
tion, was  published  a  few  years  since  by  Mr.  Cory,  of  Pembroke  College,  Cam- 


28  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Jesuit,  Father  Kircher.  In  1636  he  published  six  bulky  folios, 
in  which  he  professed  to  explain  and  read  most  of  the  hiero- 
glyphical  inscriptions  on  the  Egyptian  monuments  then  in 
Europe.  His  interpretations  were  all  wrapped  in  an  unin- 
telligible mysticism  ;  and  at  least  proved  that  the  imagination 
of  the  worthy  father  was  as  prolific  as  his  learning  was  un- 
questionable. If,  however,  he  failed  in  interpretation,  his 
labors  were  not  useless.  Osborn  remarks  that  "  Kircher  emi- 
nently assisted  the  researches  that  ultimately  proved  successful, 
by  bringing  together  in  his  book  a  voluminous  collection  of 
passages  from  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors  respecting  Egypt 
And  still  more,  by  calling  the  attention  of  the  learned  to  the 
Coptic  tongue,  in  which  a  vast  number  of  MSS.  were  collected 
in  the  Vatican  and  other  libraries,  both  public  and  private,  in 
Italy."  Kircher  had  many  able  successors,  than  whom,  per- 
haps, none  deserves  more  honorable  mention  than  the  learned 
Dane,  George  Zoega.  He  published  in  1797  his  work  on  the 
origin  and  use  of  the  obelisks,  and  very  many  of  his  sugges- 
tions were  undoubtedly  of  great  use  to  those  who  came  after 
him.  An  incidental  hint  was  thrown  out,  also,  by  the  acute 
mind  of  Warburton,  which,  though  viewed  by  the  learned  of 
that  day  with  incredulity,  has  subsequently  been  found  to 
point  to  the  truth.  In  his  "Divine  Legation"  he  was  led, 
from  an  attentive  perusal  of  what  had  been  said  by  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  and  Porphyry,  to  conclude  that  "  hieroglyphics 
were  a  real  written  language,  applicable  to  the  purposes  of  his- 
tory and  common  life,  as  well  as  those  of  religion  and  my- 
thology ;"  and  further,  that  among  the  different  sorts  of  hiero- 

bridge,  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  the  facts  above  stated  concerning  the  author 
and  his  work. 


SPINETO  — QUATREMERE.  29 

glyphics,  the  Egyptians  possessed  those  which  were  used  pho- 
netically, that  is,  alphabetically  as  letters.  Zoega  had  also 
conjectured  that  certain  figures  of  animals,  &c,  represented 
sounds,  and  were  possibly  letters  ;  and  from  the  Greek  word, 
&<ovTi,  (a  voice  or  articulate  sound,)  he  had  applied  to  them  the 
term  phonetic. 

It  is  obvious,  as  has  been  remarked  by  the  Marquis  Spineto, 
that  to  verify  this  conjecture,  three  things  were  indispensable. 
If  these  characters  were  phonetic,  the  words  they  expressed 
could  belong  to  the  ancient  spoken  language  of  Egypt  only ; 
it  was  therefore  indispensable  first,  to  ascertain  what  was  that 
language,  and  whether  we  had  any  remains  of  it.  Secondly, 
a  considerable  number  of  inscriptions  or  fac-similes  of  them 
was  necessary  for  purposes  of  comparison.  Thirdly,  it  was 
indispensable  to  possess  an  authentic  translation  of  some  one 
of  these  ancient  Egyptian  inscriptions  into  a  language  known 
to  modern  scholars.  Perhaps  the  difficulty,  not  to  say  appre- 
hended impossibility,  of  finding  the  happy  combination  of 
these  three  prerequisites,  may  have  led  the  learned  of  that  day 
to  pay  less  attention  to  the  conjecture  and  hint  of  Zoega  and 
Warburton,  than  they  deserved ;  and  yet  it  so  happened  that 
Providence  was  gradually  bringing  together  this  indispensable 
combination  of  circumstances.  As  to  the  first,  Quatremere 
produced  his  work  "  sur  la  langue  et  litter  ature  de  VEgypte" 
and  satisfactorily  proved,  to  the  surprise  even  of  scholars,  that 
the  Coptic  was  the  language  of  the  old  Egyptians.  The 
Copts  are,  in  fact,  the  only  direct  descendants  in  Egypt  of  the 
primitive  race,  and  until  within  about  a  hundred  years  they 
still  spoke  the  Coptic  tongue,  though  imperfectly  ;  but  the  lan- 
guage has  been  preserved  in  writing,  and  has  come  down  to 
our  day.     The  alphabet  in  which  it  is  written  is  the  Greek, 


30  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

with  the  addition  of  seven  other  characters,  taken  from  what 
is  known  as  the  enchorial  or  demotic  writing,  which  will  be 
explained  hereafter.  As  we  now  have  it,  it  came  into  use  in 
Egypt  with  the  introduction  of  Christianity ;  and  is  still  used 
in  the  Coptic  Christian  liturgies.  The  means  of  comparison 
are  not  wanting  in  the  study  of  the  language,  for  to  this  day, 
the  Christians  have  their  liturgy,  the  pentateuch,  and  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  Coptic,  accompanied  with 
Greek  and  Arabic  translations.  The  first  desideratum  was 
thus  brought  within  reach.  As  to  the  second,  the  memorable 
expedition  of  Napoleon  to  Egypt  furnished  that.  He  was  ac- 
companied by  the  ablest  savans  of  France,  and  the  "  Descrip- 
tion de  VEgypte"  which  the  French  government  published 
on  their  return,  placed  before  Europe  such  a  collection  as  it 
had  never  before  seen  of  fac-similes  of  inscriptions.  In  some 
cases  the  hieroglyphics  were  not  scrupulously  exact  copies  ;  but 
still,  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  material  was  furnished  to  the 
patient  decipherer.  Egypt  was  now  opened,  however,  and  the 
various  museums  of  Europe  began  to  be  enriched  with  spoils 
from  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  There  soon  ceased  to  be  a  want 
of  inscriptions  to  examine.  But  the  third  great  element  of 
research,  which,  in  fact,  could  alone  give  the  stamp  of  certainty 
to  any  supposed  discovery  in  interpretation,  must  also  appear. 
An  authentic  translation  of  some  ancient  Egyptian  inscription 
into  a  language  known  to  modern  scholars,  was  indispensable. 
Nothing  else  was  wanting  for  successful  archaeological  research ; 
and  as  if  to  supply  the  want,  the  Rosetta  stone  providentially 
came  forth  from  its  grave  to  furnish  what  was  needed.  The 
consequences  resulting  from  this  important  discovery,  afford 
one  of  the  most  interesting  developments  of  the  progress  of  the 
human  mind  in  its  patient  and  laborious  search  for  truth,  in 


ROSETTA  STONE.  31 

the  midst  of  uncommon  difficulties.  As  a  remarkable  phe- 
nomenon in  intellectual  history,  and  an  application  of  ingenuity 
in  overcoming  obstacles,  it  deserves  to  be  studied  as  a  curious 
chapter  in  psychology,  and  we  therefore  invite  attention  to  it. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Rosetta  Stone.  —  Specimens  ot  the  inscriptions. — Dr.  Young's  discoveries.  —  De 
Sacy.  —  Akerblad.  —  Champollion  le  Jeune. —  Discovery  of  homophones. — Sir 
Gardner  Wilkinson's  tribute  to  Champollion. — Exposure  of  the  ignorance  of 
the  French  savans,  by  Champollion. 

It  was  in  August,  1799,  that  Bouchard,  a  French  officer  of 
Artillery,  in  digging  at  Rosetta  for  the  foundations  of  a  re- 
doubt, found  a  large  stone  of  black  syenite  basalt,  marked  with 
various  characters.  Upon  closer  inspection,  it  was  seen  that 
the  stone  bore  three  inscriptions :  the  upper  one  was  in  hiero- 
glyphics, the  lowest  in  Greek  letters,  while  that  between  was 
in  a  different  character,  which  it  was  subsequently  found,  on 
reading  the  Greek  text,  was  therein  called  enchorial  or  popu- 
lar. The  stone  finally  found  its  way  to  the  British  Museum, 
where  it  now  is.  Owing  to  the  fracture  of  the  stone,  no  one 
of  the  inscriptions  was  entire,  but  still,  much  the  larger  part 
of  each  was  remaining.  On  its  arrival  in  Europe,  its  import- 
ance as  a  probable  key  to  interpretation,  was  at  once  seen ; 
and  the  Antiquarian  Society  caused  the  inscriptions  to  be 
engraved,  and  generally  circulated  among  the  European  lite- 
rati. The  French  general,  Duqua,  had  also  caused  a  cast 
of  two  impressions  of  the  stone  to  be  made  at  Cairo,  and 
had  taken  them  to  Paris.  And  here  one  cannot  but  be  struck 
by  the  reflection  with  which  Bunsen  accompanies  his  state- 


ROSETTA  STONE.  33 

merit  of  the  discovery  of  this  interesting  memorial.  "This 
seemingly  insignificant  stone,"  says  he,  "  shares  with  the 
great  and  splendid  work,  'La  Description  de  l'Egypte,'  the 
honor  of  being  the  only  result  of  vital  importance  to  universal 
history,  accruing  from  a  vast  expedition,  a  brilliant  conquest, 
and  a  bloody  combat  for  the  possession  of  Egypt.  That 
grand  conception,  the  early  forecast  of  a  young  hero  —  the 
colonization  of  Egypt  by  Europeans,  which  Liebnitz  had 
proposed  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  Bossuet,  as  a  passage  in  his 
universal  history  proves,  urgently  recommended — had  wholly 
failed,  and  seemed  destined  to  disappear  from  the  page  of 
history,  like  a  stroke  upon  the  waters,  without  leaving  a  trace 
behind  it.  After  a  bloody  and  fruitlessly  protracted  struggle, 
upon  which  millions  of  treasure  and  unnumbered  hecatombs 
of  human  life  were  sacrificed,  the  cradle  of  civilization,  the 
land  of  monuments,  was  again  unconditionally  surrendered  to 
the  dominion  of  barbarians.  *****  Under  these 
circumstances,  we  may  consider  that  splendid  work  on  Egypt 
as  a  sort  of  sin-offering  for  all  the  blood  which  has  been  so 
vainly  shed  on  her  soil." 

European  scholars,  having  obtained  copies  of  the  in- 
scriptions, directed  their  attention,  as  was  natural,  first  to 
the  Greek,  which  was  found,  upon  translation,  to  contain  a 
record,  or  recognition  of  the  highest  honors  of  the  Pharaohs 
in  the  person  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  by  the  Egyptian  priest- 
hood, assembled  at  Memphis.  Its  concluding  sentence  was 
as  follows — "that  it  may  be  known  that  the  Egyptians  elevate 
and  honor  the  God  Epiphanes  Eucharistes  in  a  lawful  man- 
ner, and  that  this  decree  should  be  engraved  on  a  tablet  of 
hard  stone  in  hieroglyphical,  [sacred  characters,]  enchorial, 

[common  writing  of  the  country,']  and  Greek  characters,  and 
o 


34  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

should  be  set  up  in  each  of  the  first,  second,  and  third-rate 
temples  at  the  statue  of  the  ever  living  king."  The  period  of 
time  of  which  the  stone  records  events,  is  about  196  b.  c, 
and  the  inscriptions  on  it  furnish,  probably,  the  most  ex- 
tended and  important  document  of  the  Graeco-Egyptian 
period.*  The  general  impression  of  the  learned  is,  that  the 
Greek  was  the  original  document,  and  the  hieroglyphics  and 
enchorial  writing  are  translations  from  it.  Porson  in  England, 
and  Heyne  in  Germany,  together  with  members  of  the  Insti- 
tute in  France,  were  not  long  in  establishing  the  proper  reading 
of  the  Greek  text  to  the  satisfaction  of  scholars ;  though  a 
full  philological  analysis  of  all  the  inscriptions,  in  the  opinion 
of  Birch  and  other  good  Egyptian  antiquarians,  is  yet  a  de- 
sideratum. It  is  obvious  however,  from  what  has  been  stated, 
that  the  discovery  of  this  stone  advanced  the  facilities  and 
means  of  research  far  beyond  any  and  all  the  advantages  pre- 
viously possessed.  And  here,  that  we  may  make  ourselves 
more  intelligible  to  the  general  reader,  we  subjoin  a  specimen 
of  the  three  different  inscriptions  found  on  the  Rosetta  stone  ; 
not  with  the  view  at  present  of  showing  the  mode  of  interpre- 
tation, but  that  a  clear  perception  may  be  had  of  the  nature 
of  those  labors  of  the  learned  which  we  are  about  to  detail. 

*  Some  years  ago  it  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Sharpe,  and  afterward  by  Mr. 
Gliddon,  that  other  copies  of  this  stone  might  be  found.  Lepsius  of  Berlin  has 
a  fragment  from  Philae,  containing  part  of  this  decree. 


ROSETTA  STONE.  35 

Hieroglyphics. 

Corresponding  Enchonal  or  Demotic. 
Corresponding  Greek. 

2THCAI  EIKONA  TOT  BACIAESiC  TITOAEMAIOT 
TOT  AI&NOBIOT  TOT  HTAnHMENOT  TPO  TOT 
<PQA    EUMiANOTC    ETXAPJCTOT. 

Thus  translated  literally  from  the  hieroglyphics  into  English  by  Bunsen: 

To  set  up  the  Statue  of  Ptolemy  the  King,  ever 

LIVING,  ETERNAL,  BELOVED  OF  PlITHA,  THE  APPARENT 
GOD,    THE    BEST    LORD — [Epiphanes  Eucharistes.] 

After  the  Greek  had  been  translated,  attention  was  directed 
to  the  two  Egyptian  texts.  De  Sacy  and  Akerblad  employed 
themselves  on  the  enchorial  or  demotic  writing;  under  the  erro- 
neous impression,  probably,  that  as  it  was  the  best  preserved  of 
all  the  inscriptions,  and  was  moreover  the  common  writing,  it 
would  prove  the  easiest  to  decipher ;  while  Dr.  Young  and 
Champollion  may  be  deemed  the  first  adventurers  into  the 
field  of  hicroglyphical  interpretation,  though  they  were  not 
unmindful  of  the  enchorial  also.  Several  incorrect  opinions 
have  been  enumerated  by  Bunsen,  as  retarding  the  progress 
of  the  first  attempts.  In  the  first  place,  it  was  assumed  that 
the  hieroglyphic  character  was  purely  symbolic.     Zocga  had 


36  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

repudiated  such  an  opinion  some  time  before ;  but  his  now 
verified  conjectures  seem,  at  that  time,  not  to  have  been 
known  by  some,  and  where  known,  to  have  been  disregarded. 
Another  assumption  was,  that  the  enchorial  text  was  purely 
alphabetical.  Hence  resulted  a  third  error,  viz.,  that  the 
language  in  both  inscriptions  was  the  same ;  but  that  they 
were  written  merely  in  two  different  ways.  It  was  De  Sacy 
who  was  the  first  successful  decipherer.  He  resorted  to  the 
plan  usually  pursued  in  interpreting  any  secret  writing.  The 
first  object  in  such  a  work  is  to  ascertain  by  close  examina- 
tion the  number  of  different  signs  or  characters ;  next  to 
distinguish  the  groups  or  combinations  that  occur  most  fre- 
quently ;  and  lastly,  according  to  the  supposed  or  ascertained 
sense  of  the  general  purport  of  the  writing,  to  explain  the 
characters  by  the  words  of  the  language  they  are  supposed  to 
embody.  Here,  the  purport  was  fully  known  from  the  Greek 
inscription;  and  it  was  the  natural  presumption,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  all  proof,  that  the  Coptic  was  the  language  embodied 
in  these  characters.  Qaiatremere  had,  however,  satisfactorily 
shown  that  it  was  in  substance  the  language  of  ancient 
Egypt.  De  Sacy  saw  that  the  only  sure  basis  of  interpreta- 
tion was  to  take  the  proper  names  occurring  in  the  Greek,  and 
to  ascertain,  if  possible,  their  equivalents  in  the  Egyptian  text. 
This  he  did ;  and  in  1802  communicated  to  Chaptal  his 
discovery  of  the  names  of  Ptolemy,  Berenice,  and  Alexander 
in  the  enchorial  writing.  Akerblad  went  further,  and  in  the 
same  year  showed,  in  a  letter  to  De  Sacy,  that  these  groups 
which  he  had  discovered  thus  expressing  proper  names,  could 
be  decomposed  into  letters.  By  means  of  these  groups  and 
thirteen  others,  he  formed  an  alphabet  for  nearly  all  the  letters 
of  the  enchorial  character ;  but  he  never  suspected,  what  was 


DR.  YOUNG'S  DISCOVERIES.  37 

nevertheless  true,  that  beside  letters,  the  enchorial  used  sym- 
bolic signs ;  and  beside  symbols,  the  hieroglyphic  used  phone- 
tic signs.  These  two  important  facts  were  the  discovery  of 
Dr.  Young. 

After  Akerblad's  labors,  some  time  elapsed  before  any 
further  progress  was  made.  It  was  not  until  1814  that  Dr. 
Young  offered  his  "conjectural  translation  of  the  Egyptian 
inscription  of  the  Rosetta  stone."  The  plan  which  he  pur- 
sued, as  described  by  himself,  was,  in  substance,  as  follows 
He  first  acquired  the  Coptic  language,  and  adopted  Akerblad's 
alphabet  of  the  enchorial  text,  suspecting,  however,  from  the 
beginning,  that  this  writing  contained  symbolic  signs  as  well 
as  letters.  He  then  commenced  comparing  groups  of  charac- 
ters in  the  Egyptian  writing  with  proper  names  in  the  Greek. 
Thus,  finding  in  the  fourth  and  fourteenth  lines  of  the  Greek, 
the  words  Alexander  and  Alexandria,  he  found  in  the  second 
and  tenth  lines  of  the  demotic  inscription,  groups  which  he 
conjectured  were  expressive  of  the  same  words.  He  states  that 
he  did  not  trouble  himself,  by  an  analysis  of  the  groups,  to 
ascertain  the  value  of  each  particular  character.  Again,  he 
observed  the  occurrence  in  almost  every  line  of  a  small  group 
of  characters ;  he  naturally  concluded  that  it  was  either  a 
common  termination,  or  else  some  common  particle.  It  was 
finally  found  to  be  the  conjunction  equivalent  to  our  English 
and.  He  next  noticed  that  a  remarkable  collection  of  charac- 
ters was  repeated  some  thirty  times  in  the  inscription ;  on 
looking  to  the  Greek,  he  found  .  the  Greek  word  for  king 
repeated  about  the  same  number  of  times ;  he  hence  trans- 
lated the  unknown  group  by  that  word.  So  also  with  the 
name  of  Ptolemy  and  the  word  Egypt ;  he  compared  as  before 
the  number  of  repetitions  of  these  words  in  the  Greek,  with 


38  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

the  repetitions  of  certain  combinations  of  characters  m  the 
inscription.  His  next  step  was  to  write  the  Greek  text  over 
the  enchorial  in  such  a  manner,  that  what  he  supposed  to  be 
coincident  words  and  passages  should  be  brought  into  juxta- 
position ;  thus  the  intermediate  parts  of  the  respective  writings 
were  of  course  brought  near  together,  and  the  field  of  compari- 
son became  constantly  less.  As  the  result  of  the  whole,  he 
found  nineteen  letters  of  Akerblad's,  and  twelve  more  of  his 
own,  beside  a  star  at  the  end  of  proper  names.  He  had  also, 
as  he  believed,  found  fifty  groups  of  words,  the  first  three  of 
which  were  those  already  indicated  by  De  Sacy,  and  analyzed 
by  Akerblad :  to  these  followed  sixteen  words  which  Akerblad 
had  analyzed,  and  the  residue  of  the  fifty  were  his  own.  To 
these  he  added  one  hundred  and  fifty  more,  for  which  he 
thought  he  had  foimd  the  corresponding  word  in  the  Greek 
inscription.  Some  of  these  afterward  proved  to  be  entirely 
wrong. 

It  would  be  most  unjust  to  an  acute,  ingenious,  and 
indefatigable  mind,  to  undervalue  the  discoveries  of  Dr. 
Young.  If  he  did  not  discover  the  whole  art  of  deciphering 
the  mysterious  characters  of  Egypt,  let  it  be  remembered  that 
the  merit  of  complete  discovery  belongs  to  no  one  individual ; 
and  that  where  all  were  contributors  to  a  common  end,  no 
one  had,  up  to  the  time  of  Young's  discoveries,  accomplished 
as  much  as  he  had.  He  certainly,  as  Mr.  Gliddon  has  stated, 
"  cast  the  first  beam  of  true  light  on  the  method  adopted  by 
the  Egyptians  in  their  peculiar  art  of  writing."  He  first  posi- 
tively indicated  on  the  Rosetta  stone  the  name  of  Ptolemy, 
and  on  the  doorway  of  Karnac  read  that  of  Berenice,  both  in 
the  hieroglyphic  characters.  He  it  was  who  first  showed  that 
of  the  two  Egyptian  inscriptions,  the  one,  the  enchorial,  was 


CHAMPOLLION  LE  JEUNE.  39 

"  in  good  measure  a  corruption,  abridgment,  or  running  form 
of  the  other."  He  also  is  entitled  to  the  merit  of  having  found 
out  the  Egyptian  mode  of  writing  numbers.  But  he  probably 
never  contemplated  the  possibility  of  an  entire  phonetic  alpha- 
bet as  existing  in  the  hieroglyphics.  The  utmost  that  he  did 
was  to  suspect  the  existence  of  what  he  indicates  by  the 
vague  phrase  "  a  certain  kind  of  syllabic  system ;"  and  that 
some  few  of  the  characters  were  the  representatives  of  letters ; 
he  certainly  knew  nothing  of  the  important  fact  of  the  use  of 
what  are  called  homophones  ;  that  is,  of  several  different  signs, 
which,  by  means  of  the  initial  letter  in  the  name  of  that 
which  they  represent,  are  made  to  express  the  same  sound.* 
Still  it  must  be  admitted  that  Young  prepared  the  way,  in 
many  respects,  for  Champollion  le  Jeune ;  so  called,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  his  elder  brother,  Champollion-Figeac. 

Jean  Francois  Champollion  would  have  been  deemed,  in 
any  age,  an  extraordinary  man.  He  was  born  in  1790,  and 
from  his  earliest  youth  seemed  destined  to  excel  in  that  de- 
partment of  letters  to  which  he  devoted  his  life.  The  expe- 
dition of  Napoleon,  led  to  results  which  filled  his  mind  with 
the  contemplation  of  the  strange  revelations  unfolded  by  a 
land  of  wonders.  His  imagination  kindled  as  he  dwelt  upon 
the  mysterious  symbols  which  he  knew  embodied  the  long 
lost  history  of  the  early  civilization  of  our  globe.  He  found 
a  fascination  in  the  very  effort  to  understand  them ;  and,  while 
yet  a  boy,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  laid  before  his  teachers, 
as  a  literary  exercise,  an  outline  of  a  treatise  on  the  ancient 
geography  of  Egypt,  with  an  introduction  and  map.  These 
he  presented,  as  a  specimen  of  the  first  part  of  a  compre- 

•  Homophones  will  be  fully  illustrated  on  a  future  page. 


40  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

hensive  work  which  he  contemplated,  on  the  language,  writ- 
ing, and  religion  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  boy  who,  at 
the  age  of  seventeen,  indulged  in  such  lofty  aspirations,  and 
found  agreeable  mental  excitement  in  the  pursuit  of  such 
studies  as  he  had  adopted,  needed  but  health  and  opportunity 
to  leave  behind  him  an  honored  name,  and  to  rear  a  monu- 
ment on  which  the  lettered  men  of  future  times  would  look 
with  grateful  admiration. 

With  his  MSS.  in  his  hand  he  presented  himself,  ere  yet  he 
was  a  man,  to  the  principal  scientific  men  of  Paris,  and,  fos- 
tered by  the  advice  and  guidance  of  De  Sacy,  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  he  commenced  printing  the  introduction  to  his  pro- 
posed work.  It  appeared  in  1814,  when  he  was  twenty-four 
years  old,  and  contained  corrections  of,  and  additions  to  Aker- 
blad's  alphabet,  and  related  the  result  of  his  own  researches 
into  the  Coptic.  The  grammar  and  dictionary  of  that  lan- 
guage, which  he  then  projected,  maintains  to  this  day  its  high 
reputation.  But  he  was  travelling  over  an  untried  field, 
where  way-marks  were  few  and  indistinct  at  best,  and  his 
steps  were  necessarily  slow  and  toilsome.  His  enthusiasm, 
however,  sustained  him.  He  was  laboring  under  an  error, 
which  he  afterward  discovered,  and  magnanimously  con- 
fessed. Champollion  le  Jeune  proved  himself  to  be  a  great 
man,  for  he  was  not  ashamed  to  say  "  I  have  been  wrong." 
The  error  alluded  to,  consisted  in  his  deeming  the  hiero- 
glyphics to  be  purely  symbolic.  Out  of  this  error  he  extri- 
cated himself;  but  not  until  he  satisfied  himself  that  the 
hieroglyphical  was  the  most  ancient  form  of  Egyptian  writ- 
ing, and  that,  would  he  succeed,  his  researches  must  begin  with 
that.  He  had  devoted  time,  as  Young  and  others  had  done, 
to  the  enchorial  or  demotic  writing,  and  had  also  studied  the 


CHAMPOLLION  LE  JEUNE.  41 

hieratic,  as  it  is  called,  which  we  will  explain  presently ;  but 
now,  leaving  these,  his  whole  attention  was  directed  to  the 
hieroglyphics;  and  it  was  in  this  work  that  he  reared  for 
himself  an  enduring  renown. 

It  is  pleasant  to  remark,  in  tracing  the  progress  of  the 
human  mind  in  any  discovery,  the  seemingly  fortuitous  con- 
currence of  circumstances  which  not  unfrequently  sheds  un- 
expected light  on  the  path  of  the  discoverer,  and  without 
which,  to  all  human  seeming,  the  discovery  would,  probably, 
not  then  have  been  made.  Champollion,  in  determining  to  com- 
mence with  the  hieroglyphics,  knew  full  well  what  others  had 
done.  Dr.  Young  had  steadily  expressed  his  belief,  that  all 
Egyptian  writing  originated  in  the  hieroglyphics,  and  there- 
fore must  contain  symbolic  signs  ;  and  not,  simply,  the  alpha- 
betic characters  which  Akerblad  had  found  in  the  enchorial 
inscriptions  :  this  principle  he  had  endeavored  to  apply  to  the 
hieroglyphic  names  of  kings,  and  had  read  "  Ptolemy "  and 
"Berenice."  Dr.  Young,  however,  never  had  explained  the 
method  by  which  he  had  proceeded.  Beyond  these  particu- 
lars, Champollion  derived  no  aid  from  him.  Having,  however, 
from  Young's  success,  become  satisfied  of  the  importance  of 
the  royal  rings  containing  proper  names,  he  turned  to  them. 
It  so  happened  that  as  early  as  1816,  Caillaud,  the  French  tra- 
veller, who  discovered  Meroe,  had  met  at  the  island  of  Philae 
with  a  small  obelisk,  which  was  first  discovered  by  Belzoni. 
On  the  pedestal  of  this  obelisk  is  a  Greek  inscription,  in  which 
occur  the  names  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra.  Caillaud  made  a 
fac-simile  of  this  inscription ;  and  afterward,  an  English  gen- 
tleman, Mr.  William  Bankes,  transported  the  monument  itself  to 
his  residence  in  Dorsetshire,  and  circulated  copies  of  its  hiero- 
glyphic  inscriptions  among  the  learned.     Both  Young  and 


42  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Champollion  were  acquainted  with  this  monument.  To  the 
latter  only  was  it  of  any  value  in  interpretation.  He  observed 
on  it  hieroglyphics  in  a  ring,  precisely  similar  to  those  on  the 
Rosetta  stone,  which  Young  had  interpreted  to  mean  Ptolemy ; 
the  Greek  inscription  led  him  to  suspect  that  the  other  ring 
must  contain  the  name  of  Cleopatra.  The  result  of  his  inves- 
tigation may  best  be  told  in  his  own  words,  as  contained  in  a 
letter  to  M.  Dacier :  we  prefix  copies  of  the  two  sets  of  hiero- 
glyphics to  make  his  letter  intelligible. 
nt  |  £JZ  rs  u\  This  hieroglyphic  Dr.  Young  had  inter- 
,  'r "  \  *"  ~)  preted,  on  the  Rosetta  stone,  to  be  the  name 
of  Ptolemy. 

Champollion,  proceeding  on  the  opinion  that  the 
characters  within  the  ring  might  be,  in  some  instances 
at  least,  phonetic  or  alphabetic,  thus  felt  his  way  to 
the  truth. 

"  The  first  sign  of  the  name  of  Cleopatra,  which  re- 
presents a  kind  of  quadrant,  and  which  ought  to  be  the 
letter  K,  (C)*  should  not  occur  in  the  name  of  Ptolemy,  and  it 
is  not  there.  The  second,  a  crouching  lion,  which  should  re- 
present the  L,  is  identical  with  the  fourth  of  Ptolemy,  which  is 
also  an  L.  The  third  sign  is  a  feather  or  leaf,  which  should 
represent  the  short  vowel  E.  Two  similar  leaves  may  be  ob- 
served at  the  end  of  the  name  of  Ptolemy,  which,  by  their 
position,  must  have  the  sound  of  E  long.  The  fourth  charac- 
ter to  the  left,  represents  a  kind  of  flower  or  root  with  its  stalk 
bent  downward,  and  should  answer  to  the  letter  O,  and  is 
accordingly  the  third  letter  in  the  name  of  Ptolemy.  The  fifth, 
to  the  right,  is  a  sort  of  square,  which  should  represent  the  let- 
ter P,  and  it  is  the  first  in  the  name  of  Ptolemy.     The  sixth, 

*  The  Greek  Alphabet  has  no  C  in  it ;  K  is  its  substitute. 


CHAMPOLLION.  43 

to  the  left,  is  a  hawk,  which  should  be  the  letter  A.  That 
letter  does  not  occur  in  the  Greek  name  Ptolemy,  neither  does 
it  occm  in  the  hieroglyphic  transcription.  The  seventh  is  an 
open  hand,  representing  the  T,  but  this  character  is  not  found 
in  the  name  of  Ptolemy,  where  the  second  letter,  T,  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  segment  of  a  sphere.  The  eighth  sign,  a  mouth, 
seen  in  front,  ought  to  be  the  letter  R,  and  as  that  letter  does 
not  occur  in  Ptolemy,  it  is  also  absent  from  his  hieroglyphic 
name.  The  ninth  and  last  sign,  which  ought  to  be  the  vowel 
A,  is  a  repetition  of  the  hawk,  which  has  that  sound  in  the 
sixth.  The  signs  of  the  feminine  on  each  side  of  this  hawk, 
terminate  the  name  of  Cleopatra  ;  that  of  Ptolemy  ends  with 
a  bent  stalk,  which  we  conclude  to  be  the  letter  S." 

If  the  reader  as  he  proceeded  has  compared  the  letter  with 
the  hieroglyphics,  he  will  have  perceived  that  the  ingenuity 
of  Champollion  had  discovered  in  the  hieroglyphical  name  of 
Cleopatra,  certain  signs,  which,  if  alphabetic,  served  to  ex- 
press the  letters  I,  o,  p,  a,  t ;  and,  that  if  used  for  the  signs  of 
those  letters,  they  also  harmonize  very  well  with  the  literal 
spelling  of  the  name  of  Ptolemy.  By  means  of  the  two  rings, 
therefore,  assuming  that  these  characters  were  phonetic,  he 
had  actually  discovered  what  we  should  call  twelve  letters. 
But  how  did  these  palpable  images  of  sensible  objects  ex- 
press letters  ?  That  remained  to  be  discovered :  he  knew 
their  value  as  letters,  but  it  was  yet  to  be  found  out  on  what 
principle  or  rule  they  were  made  to  have  that  value.  He  had 
observed  of  one  letter  T,  which  occurred  in  both  rings,  that, 
in  the  one  it  was  indicated  by  the  segment  of  a  sphere,  and 
in  the  other  by  an  open  hand.  If  the  assumption  on  which 
he  was  proceeding  were  correct,  it  was  obvious  that  here  were 
tu-o  sitrns  for  the  same  letter.     Instead  of  hence  hastily  con- 


44  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

eluding,  as  some  would  have  done,  that  his  whole  assumption 
was  erroneous,  his  sagacious  mind  instantly  saw  a  mode  of 
explanation  that  removed  the  difficulty,  by  the  supposition 
that  the  principle  or  rule  by  which  a  phonetic  value  was  given 
to  these  pictured  representations,  was  the  very  simple  one  of 
taking  either  the  syllable  or  initial  letter  of  the  word,  which 
in  the  ancient  language  of  Egypt,  expressed  the  name  of  the 
thing  represented.  Thus,  if  he  saw  a  mouth  delineated,  pho- 
netically it  was  R,  because  the  word  for  mouth  was  ro.  So 
of  an  eagle,  it  was  A,  because  Akhom  was  the  word  for  eagle. 
A  hand  was  Tot ;  phonetically,  therefore,  it  became  T.  Now 
it  was  obvious  that  the  names  of  a  great  many  different  objects 
used  in  hieroglyphics  might  begin  with  the  same  letter,  and 
hence  that  letter  might  be  expressed  by  different  signs,  as  con- 
venience, or  a  neat  arrangement  of  the  writing,  or  some  other 
cause,  might  dictate.  Here,  then,  was  the  mystery  of  homo- 
phones laid  open.  All  symbols  or  characters  that  phonetically 
expressed  the  same  letter  were  homophones  ;  and  subsequent 
and  long  continued  examination  and  comparison  could  alone 
show  him  whether  this  system  of  homophones  was  limited  to 
a  certain  number  of  different  objects,  or  was  as  extensive  as 
the  objects  themselves.  He  found  them  limited,  as  will  be 
seen  hereafter  in  the  alphabet  of  hieroglyphics.  He  had  now 
reached  a  grand  result ;  he  proceeded  to  verify  it  by  an  ex- 
amination of  all  the  royal  rings  to  which  he  had  access,  (the 
number  was  large,)  and  he  triumphantly  established  the  fact 
that  he  had  discovered  the  long  buried  secret,  and  applied  the 
true  key,  which  Young  had  picked  up  but  never  used,  to  the 
intricate  lock  of  hieroglyphical  interpretation ;  for  he  read  the 
names  in  all  the  rings  he  examined.  Discarding  all  other 
methods,  acting  on  Young's  hint,  he  had  sought  the  key  to 


CHAMPOLLION.  45 

an  entire  system  of  deciphering  in  the  hieroglyphics  alone ; 
that  course  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  phonetic  signs  in  the 
royal  rings ;  and  that  again  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  homo- 
phones. The  work  was  done,  he  was  on  the  right  path,  and 
he  had  but  to  proceed,  for  the  whole  hieroglyphic  research 
was  now  in  his  hands ;  and  he,  whom  we  saw  as  the  enthu- 
siastic boy  of  seventeen  with  his  bold  but  immature  specu- 
lations, now  knew  that  the  name  of  Champollion  le  Jeune 
would  not  be  forgotten  until  Egypt  herself  should  cease  to  be 
remembered. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  we  so  frequently  find,  in  the 
history  both  of  literary  and  scientific  research,  the  claims  of 
contemporaneous  discoverers  to  be  nearly  equally  balanced. 
Champollion's  reading  of  the  name  of  Cleopatra  in  the  royal 
ring  on  the  obelisk  of  Philae  has  already  been  related,  together 
with  his  own  statement  of  the  ingenuity  by  which  he  accom- 
plished it ;  but  the  very  same  thing  had  been  done,  as  it 
appears,  by  Mr.  Bankes  in  1818,  though  the  fact  was  unknown 
to  the  world  until  after  the  publication  of  Champollion's  letter 
to  M.  Dacier.  The  process  pursued  by  Mr.  Bankes  is  fully 
stated  in  a  long  note  to  a  pamphlet  on  the  phonetic  system  of 
hieroglyphics,  published  by  Mr.  Salt.  Champollion,  however, 
was  prior  in  his  publication  by  two  or  three  years,  and  to  him, 
as  Mr.  Gliddon  has  said,  "exclusively  belongs  the  merit  of 
putting  forth  his  system  at  once,  and  complete  beyond  all 
previous  anticipation,  applicable  to  every  epoch,  and  to  every 
legend  in  Egyptian  history."  Pursuing  his  investigations,  and 
strictly  adhering  to  the  path  on  which  he  had  entered,  Cham- 
pollion compiled  an  alphabet  of  hieroglyphics,  and  in  1S24  gave 
to  the  world  his  magnificent  work,  "  Precis  da  Systtone  Hie- 
roglyphique."     A  hieroglyph ical  dictionary,  and  an  Egyptian 


46  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

grammar,  are  also  to  be  enumerated  in  the  list  of  his  labors. 
At  the  age  of  forty-two  he  died,  leaving  behind  him  the  mer- 
ited reputation  of  having  been  discoverer,  master,  and  guide 
in  the  intricate  mysteries  of  hieroglyphic  interpretation. 

It  would  be  unjust  to  one  who  has  himself  acquired  no 
small  reputation  in  the  field  of  Egyptian  research,  to  withhold 
the  generous  tribute  which  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  has  ren- 
dered to  the  merits  of  Champollion. 

"  To  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  introduce  the  name  of 
Champollion,  to  whom  we  are  so  deeply  indebted,  without 
paying  a  just  tribute  to 'his  talents,  is  to  me  a  reproach  which 
I  cannot  suffer  to  remain  unremoved.  I  do  not  wish  to  enter 
into  the  question  respecting  the  discovery  of  the  proper  mode 
of  reading  the  hieroglyphics  :  suffice  it  to  say,  that  Dr.  Young 
gave  the  first  idea  and  proof  of  their  alphabetic  force,  which 
was  even  for  some  time  after  doubted  by  Champollion.  And 
that  the  merit  of  originality  in  this  point  is  due  to  our  dis- 
tinguished countryman,  I  can  bear  a  satisfactory  testimony, 
having,  with  my  much-regretted  friend,  Sir  William  GelL  as 
early  as  the  summer  of  1821,  so  far  profited  by  Dr.  Young's 
opinions  on  the  subject,  as  to  be  enabled  to  suggest  the  sup- 
posed value  of  two  or'  three  other  characters,  beside  those  he 
had  already  ascertained ;  our  taking  this  view  of  the  question 
being  solely  in  consequence  of  his  discovery  that  they  were 
the  representatives  of  letters.  But  it  remained  for  the  genius 
of  a  Champollion  to  kindle  the  spark  thus  obtained  into  a 
flame,  and  to  display  by  its  light,  the  path  which  led  to  a 
clear  insight  into  the  subject,  to  perfect  the  discovery,  and 
to  lay  down  certain  rules,  applicable  in  individual  as  well  as 
in  general  cases ;  and  in  justice  to  him  be  it  confessed,  that, 
if  our  knowledge  of  hieroglyphics  were  confined  to  the  limited 


CHAMPOLLION.  47 

extent  to  which  it  was  carried  by  Dr.  Young,  we  should  have 
no  regular  system  to  guide  us  in  the  interpretation  of  them, 
and  should  know  little  more  than  the  alphabetic  value  of  a 
few  letters,  without  the  means  of  affixing  a  positive  construc- 
tion to  a  single  sentence  on  any  Egyptian  monument. 

"Had  Champollion  been  disposed  to  give  more  credit  to 
the  value  and  originality  of  Dr.  Young's  researches,  and  to 
admit  that  the  real  discovery  of  the  key  to  the  hieroglyphics, 
which  in  his  dexterous  hand  proved  so  useful  in  unlocking 
those  hidden  treasures,  was  the  result  of  his  labors,  he  would 
unquestionably  have  increased  his  own  reputation,  without 
making  any  sacrifice.  In  this,  as  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Burton's 
trilinguar  (or  rather  trigrammatic)  stone,  and  in  a  few  other 
points,  he  may  have  shown  a  want  of  ingenuousness :  all 
have  their  faults  and  vanities ;  but  this  is  not  a  reason  that 
the  memory  of  one  so  respectable  as  Champollion  should  be 
aspersed,  or  due  praise  refused  him ;  and  we  cannot  forgive 
the  ungenerous  conduct  of  those  who,  from  private  pique, 
summon  up  and  misapply  talents  to  pervert  truth ;  denying 
the  merit  of  labors,  which  every  one,  acquainted  with  the 
subject,  knows  to  have  been  crowned  with  unexampled  and 
wonderful  success.  This  is  not  an  era  when  we  could  believe 
men  capable  of  lending  themselves  to  the  unworthy  office  of 
maligning  one  no  longer  living  to  defend  himself,  and  one 
who,  present  or  absent,  merits  and  possesses  the  respect  and 
admiration  of  every  unprejudiced  person.  Yet  have  some 
been  found,  in  more  than  one  country,  prompted  to  this  mali- 
cious act  by  personal  enmity,  envy  of  his  superior  talents  and 
success,  or  by  that  affectation  of  skepticism,  which,  while  it 
endeavors  to  conceal  ignorance,  often  hopes  to  acquire  credit 
for  discernment  and  superior  knowledge. 


48  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

"  When  the  subject  of  hieroglyphics  becomes  better  under- 
stood, and  the  world  is  capable  of  judging  how  much  we  owe 
to  him,  the  wonderful  ingenuity  of  Champollion  will  be  appre- 
ciated ;  and  the  greatest  praise  we  can  bestow  on  him  is  confi- 
dently to  pronounce,  that  time  will  do  justice  to  his  merits, 
and  experience  prove  the  truth  of  what  inexperience  now 
calls  in  question." 

If  we  do  not  dwell  upon  the  works  of  Rosellini,  Salvolini, 
Lepsius,  Bunsen,  Wilkinson,  Birch,  and  others,  worthy  co- 
laborers  or  successors  in  the  field  which  Champollion  had 
opened,  it  is  not  from  non-appreciation  of  their  merits,  but 
from  want  of  the  necessary  space  in  which  to  do  them  justice. 
Suffice  it,  however,  to  say,  that  no  point  is,  at  this  day,  better 
established,  from  the  labors  of  the  learned,  than  that  the 
inscriptions  found  on  the  decaying  monuments  and  frail 
papyri  of  ancient  Egypt,  are,  m  many  instances,  perfectly 
intelligible ;  and  it  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  hope,  that  the 
day  will  come  when  men  may  read,  in  their  own  tongues,  the 
translation  of  all. 

The  statement  of  an  amusing  and  interesting  result  that 
followed  upon  Champollion's  discovery  of  the  reading  of  the 
hieroglyphics,  will  not  inappropriately  close  our  narrative  of 
his  important  and  extraordinary  labors.  Among  the  monu- 
ments which  had,  in  an  especial  manner,  attracted  the  notice 
of  the  French  savans  who  had  accompanied  Napoleon  to 
Egypt,  none  had  excited  more  learned  controversy  than  two 
zodiacs,  the  one  sculptured  upon  the  ceiling  of  the  temple  of 
Dendera,  and  the  other  upon  that  of  the  temple  at  Esneh,  in 
upper  Egypt.  For  these  monuments  there  was  claimed  an 
extraordinary  antiquity,  and  it  was  confidently  asserted  that 
they  completely  exploded   all    Scriptural    chronology.      M. 


CHAMPOLLION.  49 

Jomard  made  them  at  least  3000  years  old  when  the  Christian 
era  commenced ;  while  M.  Dupuis  would  not  abate  a  second 
of  4000  years ;  and  M.  Gori  was  very  sure  they  could  not  be 
younger  than  17,000  years  !  "  Like  birds  of  the  night,"  (says 
Osborn,)  "hovering  over,  or  perching  upon,  the  uncouth  remains 
of  ancient  superstition,  they  filled  the  air  with  their  dismal  fore- 
bodings of  the  downfall  of  Christianity,  or  with  shrieks  of 
laughter  still  more  revolting,  when  they  thought  that  their 
object  was  accomplished.  All  these,  however,  were  soon  to  be 
put  to  flight  by  that  of  which  they  professed  themselves  to  be 
all  the  while  most  devoted  worshippers — the  light  of  truth." 

When  Champollion,  in  the  course  of  his  researches  into 
royal  rings,  came  to  read  that  upon  the  zodiac  of  Dendera,  he 
found  the  title  of  Augustus  CcBsar  ;  while  on  that  at  Esneh, 
he  read  the  name  of  Antoninus.  That  temple,  therefore,  which 
M.  Dupuis  had  declared  to  be  4000  years  older  than  the  Chris- 
tian era,  proved  to  have  been  built  about  the  time  of  its  com- 
mencement ;  and  the  edifice  at  Esneh,  which  had  been  pro- 
foundly demonstrated  to  be  17,000  years  old  when  the  Saviour 
came,  was  shown  to  belong  to  a  period  140  years  after  his  ad- 
vent. And  thus  were  exposed  the  pretence  of  learning  and 
the  insolence  of  arrogance,  on  the  part  of  a  class  of  men  who 
sought,  by  bold  perversion  and  confident  dogmatism,  to  distort 
all  that  Egypt  might  reveal,  into  testimony  against  the  Bible. 
4 


CHAPTER  III. 

Examples  of  Egyptian  writing. — Hieroglyphic. — Hieratic. — Demotic. 

Having,  in  the  previous  pages,  endeavored  to  give  to  the  gene- 
ral reader  a  brief  outline,  presenting  an  intelligible  view  of  the 
chief  features  in  the  history  of  hieroglyphic  interpretation  ;  it 
only  remains  to  complete  this  division  of  our  task  by  an  effort 
to  illustrate,  by  examples,  the  subject  of  Egyptian  writing. 
That  some  of  the  ancients  were  not  entirely  ignorant  of  the 
phonetic  character  of  Egyptian  writing  is  certain.  We  have  no 
evidence,  however,  that  any  of  them  knew  how  to  interpret  it. 
Thus  Pliny  says,  "for  those  sculptures  and  likenesses  which  we 
see,  are  Egyptian  letters?*  Porphyry,  also,  in  the  "  Life  of 
Pythagoras,"  states  that  the  Egyptians  had  three  different  kinds 
of  letters,  epistolographicaU  hieroglyphical,  and  symbolical. 
But  the  most  particular  account  is  to  be  found  in  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  The  passage  is  not  without  obscurity  in  some  par- 
ticulars, in  others  it  is  direct  and  plain.  We  give  what  seems 
to  be  the  substance  of  his  meaning,  according  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  Bunsen,  who  has  examined  it  with  great  critical  care. 
The  English  version,  as  well  as  the  original  Greek,  may  be 
found  in  his  first  volume  of  "Egypt's  place  in  the  World's 
History."     According  to  Clement,  the  Egyptians  taught,  first 

*  Etenim  sculpturae  illae  effigiesque,  quas  videmus,  Egyptian  sunt  litera?. 


HIEROGLYPHIC    WRITING  51 

of  all,  the  method  of  writing  called  the  epistolographic ; 
secondly,  the  hieratic,  which  the  sacred  scribes  employ  ;  and 
last  of  all  the  hieroglyphic.  The  epistolographic,  according 
to  the  judgment  of  the  learned,  is  the  same  that  is  sometimes 
called  the  enchorial,  and  sometimes,  as  by  Herodotus  and  Dio- 
dorus,  the  demotic.  It  is  necessary  to  speak  of  these  sepa- 
rately. 

I. HIEROGLYPHIC    WRITING. 

This  was  the  original  mode  of  Egyptian  writing.  It  has 
been  conjectured  by  some  who  have  speculated  on  the  origin 
of  the  art  of  writing,  (and  with  how  near  an  approximation 
to  truth  the  reader  can  judge  for  himself,)  that  the  earliest 
attempt  at  conveying  ideas  to  the  mind,  by  marks  addressed 
to  the  eye,  is  to  be  found  in  what  is  usually  termed  "  picture 
writing."  That  such  a  mode  has  been  resorted  to  by  savage 
nations,  as  well  as  by  those  more  or  less  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion, is  undoubtedly  true.  We  know,  for  instance,  that  among 
the  Indians,  as  they  are  termed  in  our  own  country,  their  rude 
representations  of  men,  and  brutes,  and  other  physical  objects, 
delineated  on  bark  or  skins,  have  been  used,  and  are  still,  to 
convey  information  that  is  intelligible  to  their  own  people. 
So,  too,  in  Mexico,  intelligence  of  the  landing  of  Cortez  was 
communicated  to  the  capital,  by  this  mode  of  writing.  In- 
deed, among  the  Mexicans,  it  had  been  carried  to  an  extent 
much  greater  than  is  usually  supposed,  and  is  worthy  of  a 
more  attentive  study  than  it  has  yet  received.  It  may  not  be 
uninteresting  to  present  the  reader  with  a  specimen.  It  is  the 
record  of  a  marriage. 


52 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


Such  events  as  are  here  commemorated,  were  usually 
brought  about  by  an  old  woman,  who  was  a  species  of  mar- 
riage broker.  Here  she  may  be  seen  (T)  carrying  the  bride 
(W)  on  her  back  to  the  house  of  the  bridegroom,  accompanied 
by  four  women  (X  Z)  bearing  torches.  At  the  house  the 
bride  (L)  and  the  bridegroom  (M)  are  seated  on  a  mat ;  they 
are  tied  together  by  the  corners  of  their  garments,  and  are 
distinguishable  from  each  other  by  the  fact  of  the  man's 
sitting  on  a  stool.  Two  old  women  (N  V)  are  sitting  at  one 
end  of  the  mat,  and  two  old  men  (I  R)  at  the  other.  These 
are  the  witnesses.  After  offering  to  their  gods  a  perfume  of  co- 
pal, came  the  marriage  feast ;  there  are  two  kinds  of  meat  (P  Q,) 
and  some  pulse  (S),  and  the  cup  out  of  which  they  were  both  to 
drink  (A),  is  also  delineated.  The  witnesses  dined  after  the 
new  married  couple.  Signs  are  seen  coming  from  the  mouths 
of  the  four  witnesses ;  these  are  tongues,  signifying  speech. 


HIEROGLYPHIC   WRITING.  53 

Here  they  import  the  advice  which  it  was  usual  for  the  aged 
witnesses  to  give  to  the  new  married  couple. 

Here  it  will  be  remarked  that  every  thing  delineated  is  but 
the  sign  of  some  sensible  object.  The  imagination,  added  to  a 
knowledge  of  Mexican  marriage  customs,  makes  the  rude  pic- 
ture intelligible ;  but  it  conveys  no  sound  of  letter  or  word  ;  it 
merely  tells  to  the  eye  a  story,  which,  though  perfectly  intelli- 
gible to  every  ancient  Mexican,  would  not  probably  be  read  off 
or  translated  by  any  two  into  precisely  the  same  language.  It 
is  not  at  all  improbable,  in  the  view  of  the  Chevalier  Bunsen, 
that  the  first  writing  of  the  Egyptians  was  of  this  pictorial  char- 
acter ;  though  he  thinks  that  the  fact  is  not  to  be  proved  from 
the  monuments.  He  deduces  it  from  the  essential  nature  and 
requisites  of  a  figurative  character,  and  a  comparison  of  them 
with  the  individual  elements  of  the  system  of  hieroglyphical 
writing,  as  they  are  now  known  to  exist. 

According  to  Clement  there  were  three  modes  of  expressing 
ideas  by  hieroglyphic  characters,  all  being  the  representations 
of  physical  objects,  more  or  less  exact. 

I.  The  idea  might  be  conveyed  by  direct  imitation ;  that 
is,  by  a  picture  of  the  object  intended  to  be  expressed.  Thus, 
the  picture  of  a  man  denotes  a  man,  and  that  of  a  horse,  a 
horse. 

II.  By  a  symbolic  or  enigmatic  use  of  the  pictures  of 
objects :  that  is,  by  the  representation  of  one  object  conveying 
an  idea  of  another.      Thus,  the  relation  of  a  son  is  desig- 

nated  by  an  egg,  f^  a  goose,    fa^  an  eye,  jj£  or  a  seed 

germinating,  ^  Jfr.  We  do  not  now  stop  to  ask  why  these 
signs  indicate  this  relation,  or  how  the  fact  that  they  do  so 
was  discovered ;  our  object  is,  at  present,  simply  to  illustrate 


54  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

one  of  the  modes  of  using  the  hieroglyphic  symbols.  It 
verifies  Clement's  remark,  as  quoted  by  Bunsen,  that  "they 
apply  pictorial  signs  to  objects  of  different  import,  and  bring 
them,  as  it  were,  under  another  category,  (i.  e.,  transfer  them 
or  express  them  metaphorically,  as  we  should  describe  it,)  for 
they  sometimes  interchange  them,  at  others  modify  them  in 
various  ways.' 

Under  this  species  of  hieroglyphic  writing,  there  were,  as  is 
stated  very  perspicuously  by  Mr.  Gliddon,  four  different  modes 
of  expression,  viz. : 

1st.  A  part  was  sometimes  put  for  the  whole ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  head  of  a  ram  or  goose  was  delineated  instead  of 
the  whole  animal.  This  was  doubtless  an  abridgment  of 
convenience  merely. 

2d.  Sometimes  the  cause  was  put  for  the  effect ;  for  ex- 
ample, a  month  was  expressed  by  a  crescent,  (the  sign  of  the 
moon,)  with  its  horns  pointing  downward,  to  indicate  that  it 
had  passed  through  one  of  its  regular  periods — a  lunation 
was  ended.  Sometimes  again,  the  effect  was  put  for  the 
cause  ;  a  column  of  smoke  ascending  from  a  stove,  meant  fire. 
Sometimes,  too,  the  labor  done  was  symbolized  by  the  instru- 
ments which  had  been  used  in  its  performance :  thus,  writing 
was  expressed  by  the  implements  necessary  to  the  scribe,  viz., 
the  reed,  ink  vessel,  and  tablet  grouped  into  one  symbol. 

3d.  Sometimes  the  idea  was  expressed  by  metaphor  purely. 
Thus,  a  vulture  represented  a  mother,  because  this  bird  was 
supposed  by  the  Egyptians  to  nourish  its  young  with  its  own 
blood.  A  bee  meant  a  king,  because  of  the  real  or  supposed 
monarchical  government  under  which  that  insect  lived.  It  is 
perhaps  worthy  of  investigation  whether  this  use  of  hiero- 
glyphics is  not  comparatively  modern,  and  whether  it  be  not 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING.  55 

the  "secret  character"  to  which  Clement  alludes,  and  of 
which  the  work  of  Horapollo,  before  mentioned,  furnishes 
numerous  specimens.  Certain  it  is,  that  many  of  the  inter- 
pretations of  Horapollo  are  not  sustained  by  the  ancient  mon- 
uments or  by  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  and  Bunsen  remarks  of 
them  that  most  of  his  explanations  are  little  bettor  than  arbi- 
trary subtleties  or  false  cabalistic  mysticism ;  and  that  most  of 
his  hieroglyphics  are  borrowed  from  the  "  secret  characters," 
and  consequently  do  not  apply  to  the  monuments  or  books. 

4thly.  Sometimes  the  hieroglyphic  symbol  conveyed  its 
meaning  by  an  enigma.  Thus  the  Ibis  stood  for  the  god 
Thoth,  because  of  some  fancied  mystical  connection  between 
the  bird  and  the  god ;  so  also  with  other  emblems  of  Egyp- 
tian divinities.  The  lotus  flower  indicated  Upper  Egypt,  a 
roll  of'papyrus  Lower  Egypt. 

III.  Clement  states  distinctly  that  the  hieroglyphic  charac- 
ters, in  addition  to  the  two  modes  of  conveying  ideas  already 
described,  were  used  also  to  express  letters  (though  he  does  not 
tell  us  hoiv  they  did  it) ;  and  this  brings  us  to  the  consideration 
of  their  most  interesting  use  as  phonetics,  or  the  signs  of  sound. 
If  the  modern  reader  were  merely  informed  that  the  ancient 
Egyptians  possessed  an  alphabet,  which  had  been  recently  dis- 
covered, he  would  doubtless  conclude,  from  his  acquaintance 
with  what  are  known  to  him  as  alphabets,  that  a  certain  set  of 
seemingly  arbitrary  linear  characters,  to  which  were  attached 
certain  sounds  of  vowels  and  consonants,  was  what  had  been 
brought  to  light.  He  certainly  never  would  divine,  from  the  an- 
nouncement, that  a  very  numerous  set  of  pictures  of  common 
objects  had  been  most  ingeniously  made  to  convey,  each,  the 
simple  sound  of  a  letter,  often  without  the  slightest  reference 
to   the   character  or  purposes  of  the  object  delineated.     He 


56 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


would  be  much  perplexed,  for  instance,  to  know  why  the 
picture  of  an  owl  should  be  m,  or  that  of  a  hand  should 
indicate  a  t.  When  the  principle  of  Egyptian  phonetics  is 
explained,  the  wonder  vanishes ;  and  though  the  modern 
reader  may  justly  think  the  plan  complicated,  he  will  also  see 
that  it  is  quite  certain  and  intelligible  in  its  application.  The 
governing  principle  in  the  phonetic  system  is  the  simple  one 
hinted  at  in  the  last  chapter ;  viz.,  that  a  sound  is  represented 
by  the  pictorial  image  of  some  physical  object ;  and  that  the 
mode  of  knowing  what  sound  is  meant,  is  to  take  the  name 
of  the  object  represented,  in  the  colloquial  idiom  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  the  initial  letter  or  articulation  of  that  name, 
is  the  sound  or  letter  indicated.  But  an  example  is  the  best 
illustration  of  this  principle,  and  none  better  can  be  made 
than  that  which  is  furnished  to  our  hand  by  Mr.  Gliddon  in 
his  first  published  lectures. 

1     The  tuft  of  a  reed,  called  Ake,  stood  for  A. 


An  eagle,  " 

A  field,  " 

A  cap,  " 

An  owl,  " 

A  mouth,  " 
A  beetle  (scarabeus),    " 

An  egg,  " 

A  hand,  " 

A  lion,  " 

A  water  tank,  " 


Akhom, 

Koi, 
Klapht, 

Mooladj, 
Ro, 

Thore, 

Soohe, 
Tot, 

Labo, 
Sheet, 


A. 

K. 
K. 

M. 
R. 
TH. 

S. 
T. 

L. 
SH. 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING.  57 

Now  to  apply  our  alphabet ;  let  us  suppose  an  ancient 
Egyptian  desirous  of  writing  phonetically  what  we  call 
'crocodile.'     He  would   give  us   the  following  characters: 


k  r 


The  first  is  an  owl,  the  second  is  the  back 


of  a  chair,  and  the  third  is  a  twisted  cord.  The  owl  is  called 
in  the  ancient  language  mulag,  or  as  some  write  it,  mooladj  ; 
this  furnishes  us  with  the  initial  M ;  so  the  initial  of  the  next 
sign  gives  us  S,  while  that  of  the  last  furnishes  H.  Placing 
the  three  together,  we  have  m  s  h ;  supply  the  vowel,  as  is 
necessary  in  oriental  languages  generally,  (for  in  the  Semitic 
tongues  it  is  frequently  omitted,)  and  you  get  the  word  msuh, 
which  is  one  of  the  Egyptian  names  for  the  crocodile. 

Now  it  will  be  at  once  perceived  that,  as  very  many  words 
must  commence  with  the  same  letter,  if  any  word  may  be 
taken  to  express,  phonetically,  its  initial,  there  is  danger  of 
confusion ;  and  hence  it  became  important  to  ascertain  how 
far  this  system  of  phonetic  objects  extends.  Upon  examina- 
tion, the  number  of  objects  used  in  the  Egyptian  writing,  was 
found  to  be  limited.  All  objects  that  express  the  same  initial 
letter  are,  as  we  have  said,  called  homophones ;  from  the 
Greek  words  implying  the  same  sound.  After  the  discovery 
of  those  objects  which  were  ordinarily  used  phonetically,  the 
way  was  open  for  the  construction  of  a  phonetic  alphabet. 

For  the  purpose  of  illustration  merely,  we  subjoin  such  an 
alphabet.  It  should,  however,  be  remarked,  that  upon  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  in  Egypt,  the  ancient  system  of 
writing,  from  its  supposed  connection  with  idolatry,  was  laid 
aside,  and  the  translations  of  the  Bible  and  other  religious 
books  into  the  language  of  the  country,  were  written  in  Greek 
characters.     There  were,  however,  six  sounds  in  Egyptian, 


58 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


which  did  not  occur  in  Greek,  and  for  these,  characters  were 
borrowed  from  the  ancient  enchorial  writing.  They  were  the 
following : 


t  Enchoria 

t.       As  adopted. 

Pronunciation. 

W 

Hi 

sh. 

y 

/ 

F. 

3 

,5 

ch.  guttural, 

f 

£ 

H. 

zs 

£ 

J. 

<f 

6 

SH. 

These,  with  the  ordinary  Greek  letters,  make  up  what  is 
called  the  Coptic  alphabet;  and  it  has  been  the  custom  to 
use  these  in  translations  from  the  hieroglyphics.  Chevalier 
Bunsen,  however,  in  his  late  work,  discards  them,  with  the 
remark  that  "  the  Latin  alphabet,  with  the  addition  of  two 
Greek  forms,  is  amply  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  a  correct 
transcript.  The  plan  hitherto  adopted  of  transcribing,  or 
rather  rendering  ancient  Egyptian  words  into  Coptic,  is  quite 
unphilological  and  unscientific.  There  is  no  harmony  be- 
tween the  Coptic  alphabet  with  its  great  variety  of  letters,  and 
the  fifteen  simple  sounds  of  the  Egyptian."  We  shall,  as 
being  more  intelligible  to  the  general  reader,  use  t  e  Roman 
letters. 

It  should  be  remarked  also  that  the  Egyptian  resembles 
the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  other  oriental  languages,  in  the  great 
uncertainty  of  its  vowels.  The  same  word  is  frequently 
written  with  a  different  vowel.     Thus  the  Coptic  word  signi- 


59 


A.E.E.  0.  0. 


B. 


K. 

SK. 


T.  TH.  D. 


L.  R. 


M. 


N. 


P.  PS. 


G.  Dk.  Sk. 
PH.  F.  U. 

H.  KH.  SH. 


SH. 


Jf-fr-fr-S-l^-Vfo-l 


dlJli^1  Mi- 'D-D 


\a;i-  d  -^i  •  il 


~,S-p  •?•*}•*• 


•  F=3 


^V5'l'/i\ 


?-d-a 


|aM 


<=a 


H. 


«^«««_!S_liJ»_ 


ALPHABET   OF    HIEROGLYPHICS. 


60  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

fying  "to  wrap  up"  or  "to  fold,"  is  written  kal,  kel,  kol,  kol, 
without  any  change  in  the  sense.  Sometimes  no  vowel  is 
used,  as  in  tb,  "  a  brick :"  it  is  read  tobi. 

The  question  may  perhaps  be  asked,  whether  there  be  any 
rule  for  the  selection  of  homophones?  There  seems  to  be 
none  which  is  always  discoverable ;  sometimes  the  selection 
seems  to  have  been  made  for  the  sake  of  mere  symmetry  of 
arrangement;  though  in  some  instances  it  appears  to  have 
been  made  on  the  principle  of  employing  a  figure  which, 
while  it  expressed  the  desired  letter,  conveyed  also  to  the 
mind  the  idea  of  some  quality  belonging  to  the  object  of 
which  it  was  the  picture,  and  applied  it  to  the  person  or  thing 
whose  name  was  phonetically  delineated.  An  example  will 
illustrate  this ;  and  a  good  one  is  furnished  in  the  Lectures 
of  the  Marquis  Spoleto.  Suppose  the  word  to  be  expressed  in 
phonetics  to  be  London : 

L. — We  might  here  take  the  figure  of  a  lion,  lamb,  leaf, 
lancet,  or  any  other  object  that  would  supply  us  with 
the  initial  L. 

O. — We  might  take  the  picture  of  an  oak,  ox,  owl,  &c. 

N. — A  net,  negro,  north-star,  nave  of  a  temple,  would  all 
furnish  us  with  the  desired  initial. 

D. — Here  we  might  select  from  the  figure  of  a  dromedary, 
dagger,  deck  of  a  ship,  or  even  the  whole  ship  to  sig- 
nify the  deck. 
What  shall  guide  us  in  the  choice  ?  London  is  the  capital 
of  a  powerful,  maritime  people,  and  a  lion  is  the  emblem  on 
the  national  standard.  Our  selection  shall  be  made  then 
with  reference  to  these  facts. 

L. — We  take  the  lion ;  it  denotes  strength,  and  is  the 
national  emblem  also. 


I 


HIEROGLYPHIC   WRITING.  61 

O. — We  take  the  oak ;  its  value  in  ship  building  is  well 

known,  and  we  are  writing  of  a  maritime  people. 
N. — We  take  a  fishing  net  or  the  north-star,  because  these 

also  are  appropriate  to  a  seafaring  people. 
D. — A  ship  or  the  deck  of  a  ship,  is  obviously  the  proper 
selection. 
Hence  the  word  London  would  be  hieroglyphically  delineated 
by  a  Mon,  o-ak,  ?i-et,  d-eck,  (o  not  repeated,  on  the  principle 
of  omitted  vowels,)  north-star. 

Another  ingenious  illustration  of  this  mode  of  selecting 
homophones  is  furnished  by  Mr.  Gliddon  in  his  Lectures.  He 
takes  the  word  America,  and  thus  proceeds : 

A. — We  might  select  one  out  of  many  more  or  less  appro- 
priate symbols ;  as  an  asp,  apple,  altar,  amaranth, 
anchor,  archer,  arrow,  antelope,  axe.     I  choose  the 

asp,   m       symbolic  of  sovereignty. 

M. — We  have  a  mace,  mast,  mastiff',  moon,  mouse,  mum- 
my, musket,  maize.  I  select  the  mace,  3K  indicative 
of  "  military  dominion."  ■ 

E. — An   ear,  egg,  eagle,  elk,  eye.     The  eagle 

is  undoubtedly  the  most  appropriate,  being  the  na- 
tional arms  of  the  Union,  and  it  means  "courage." 

R. — A  rabbit,  ram,  racoon,  ring,  rock,  rope.     I  take  the 

ram,      ^w    by  synechdoche  placing  a  part  for  the 

whole,  emblematic  of  frontal   power — intellect — and 
sacred  to  Amun. 
I. — An  bisect,  Indian,  infant,  ivy.     An  infant   JjJ)  will 

typify  the  juvenile  age  and  still  undeveloped  strength 
of  this  great  country. 


^W^ 


62  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

C. — A  cake,  caldron,  cat,  clam,  carman,  constellation,  &c. 
I  choose  the  cake,  p-.^  the  consecrated  bread — typi- 
cal of  a  civilized  region. 

A. — An  anchor,  or  any  of  the  words  beginning  with  A, 
would  answer,  but  there  is  no  such  hieroglyphic  as 
an  anchor.         I  take  the  sacred   Tau,  the   symbol 

of  "  eternal  life,"  HW  which  in  the  alphabet  is  A. 

To  designate  that  a  country  is  meant,  I  add  the  sign  &4^4 
in  Coptic  "  Kah,"  meaning  a  country.     We  thus  obtain  pho- 
netically, 

if  varj>  Of 


Country. 

The  characters  expressed  are  "sovereignty,  military  dominion, 
courage,  intelligence,  youth,  civilization,  and  perpetuity." 

This  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  principle ;  but  as 
the  vowels  are  generally  omitted  in  hieroglyphic  writing,  the 
word  would  be  written  with  the  three  consonants,  "  M.  R.  C," 
and  the  sign  for  "country." 

Another  marked  characteristic  of  this  species  of  writing 
consisted  in  the  use  of  what  are  called  determinatives.  They 
are  used  on  the  monuments  very  extensively  and  ingeniously. 
The  use  of  a  determinative  consists  simply  in  appending  to 
the  word,  after  it  is  written  in  phonetic  hieroglyphics,  a  picture 
of  the  genus  to  which  the  object  expressed  by  the  word  belongs. 
This  is  one  of  Champollion's  discoveries.     Thus,  for  instance, 


HIEROGLYPHIC  WRITING.  63 

after  the  word  cattle,  written  in  phonetic  hieroglyphics  mn-mn, 
it  was  followed  by  the  picture  of  a  cow.     After  the  name  of 

the  divinity  Anion,      ft    A,     )^\    M,  /www,  N,  followed 

the  representation  of  a  sculptured  idol.  It  has  been  made 
,  a  question  among  the  learned  whether  this  suffix  of  a 
"  determinative,"  was  invented  before  or  after  the  use  of  phone- 
tics. Bunsen  expresses  the  opinion,  that  "  those  generic  signs, 
before  the  invention  of  phonetics,  were  in  very  many  cases 
quite  indispensable.  Hence  they  came  to  be  adopted  in 
writing,  and  the  practice  was  still  retained,  even  after  the 
phonetic  character  had  rendered  pictorial  representations  unne- 
cessary, and  in  cases,  such  as  those  alluded  to,  absolutely 
superfluous." 

There  is  frequently  much  ingenuity,  and  no  small  value 
(to  the  decipherer  at  least),  in  this  use  of  determinatives  of  genus 
or  class.  Groups  of  characters  and  phonetic  values  are  some- 
times, with  this  aid,  ascertained  with  absolute  certainty ;  and 
they  are  applied  to  verbs  as  well  as  nouns.  For  example,  the 
verb  "  to  sculpture  "  or  "  to  build  "  is  written  mm  ,  the  fourth 
character,  a  mason's  trowel,  is  a  determinative ;  *  ^  to  weep, 
rima,  is  written  y  £=^  ,  the  last  character  is  a  determina- 
tive, an  eye  shedding  tears  ;  "  to  distribute  "  or  "  to  equalize," 
is  written  W ,  and  nothing  can  be  more  significant  than  the 
determinative  here,  which  is  the  plumb-line  used  in  masonry. 
Sometimes  the  determinative  of  the  verb  is  the  instrument  or 
means  of  the  action  expressed  :  thus,  shar,  to  strike  down  or 
wound  severely,  is  hieroglyphically  expressed  as  follows : 
®  i— — ^ ;  the  determinative  is  a  man  down,  having  an  axe 
buried  in  his  skull.  Sometimes  the  verb  was  determined  by 
pictures  of  visible  objects,  supposed  to  have  some  peculiar 


64  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

quality  similar  to  that  which  the  verb  was  meant  to  denote. 
Thus  "  to  be  angry,"  has  for  a  determinative  an  ape,  because  he 
is  a  very  irascible  animal :  "  to  blush  "  or  "  to  be  red,"  is  deter- 
mined by  a  flamingo,  a  scarlet  bird.  The  principle  was  car- 
ried further  still ;  it  was  applied  sometimes  to  the  pronouns. 
"  The  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  whether  used  either  as  the 
subject  or  object  of  the  verb,  or  in  the  possessive  form  with  the 
substantive,  is  frequently  determined  "  (says  Osborn),  "  by  a 
picture  of  the  person  speaking,  which  on  obelisks  and  other 
monuments  elaborately  finished,  is  a  portrait."  This  may  have 
led  to  the  erroneous  opinion  of  some  that  all  the  faces  of  great 
personages  on  the  monuments  are  portraits.  But  as  our  object 
is  simply  to  furnish  the  reader  with  some  general  idea  of  the 
singular  graphics  of  the  ancient  dwellers  in  Egypt,  and  not  to 
elucidate  the  grammatical  structure  of  their  language,  we  will 
not  longer  dwell  on  the  subject  of  determinatives. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  one  other  species  of  symbol  used  in 
hieroglyphical  writing,  which  was  discovered  by  the  acute 
mind  of  Champollion.  It  arises  from  a  peculiarity  in  the  an- 
cient Egyptian  language,  said  to  resemble  one  in  the  Chinese, 
viz.,  the  employment  of  the  same  sound  to  express  many  dif- 
ferent ideas.     Thus,  a  hatchet,  H  named  Ter,  is  one  of  the 

commonest  symbols  of  "  God  or  Divine  Being,"  because  that 
idea  was  denoted  by  the  same  sound,  Ter.  The  weaver's  shut- 
tle >=<  xrx  is  the  symbol  of  the  goddess  Neith,  because 
in  the  ancient  language,  neth  was  the  word  that  meant  shuttle. 
The  idea  of  a  physician  is  often  represented  by  a  duck ;  the 
name  of  the  duck  was  cein,  the  Egyptian  word  for  physician 
was  ceini.  As  to  the  mode  of  writing  the  hieroglyphics,  it  was 
sometimes  vertical  and  sometimes  horizontal ;  it  might  be  from 


EGYPTIAN  NUMERALS. 


65 


left  to  right,  or  from  right  to  left ;  the  latter  was,  perhaps,  the 
more  usual.  The  reading  always  commences  from  that  end 
of  the  line  to  which  the  animals  that  may  be  delineated  are 
represented  as  looking.  It  should  also  be  remarked,  that  the 
hieroglyphics  themselves  may  be  pure  or  linear  :  thus 


Pure. 


Linear. 


y-c 


°\ 


Reed — phonetically  A. 

Jackal — symbolically  a  priest. 

Goose — phonetically  S,    symboli- 
cally offspring. 


The  pure  class  was  always  used  in  sculpture  and  painting ; 
the  linear  was  more  common  in  ordinary  life  and  in  the  lite- 
rature of  the  earlier  periods. 

The  system  of  numeration,  which  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
Yoimg,  yet  remains  to  be  explained.  The  hieroglyphical 
numerals  are  as  follows  : 


n 

10 


100 


1 

1000 


1 

10.000 


1.000.000  1.000.000.000.000.000.000 

The  units  are  expressed  by  a  stroke,  but  in  groups,  thus : 


II 
II 

III 
II 


JJJ  6  as  3  +  3. 


4  as  2 -f.  2. 
5  as  3  +  2. 


Ill 
MM 

MM 
MM 

III     III 
III 


7  as  3 +  4. 
8as4  +  4. 

9  as  3  +  3-f3. 


66  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

To  this  we  have  only  to  add  that  the  names  of  kings 
are  always  written  in  hieroglyphics,  in  a  ring,  or  as  the 
French  call  it,  in  a  cartouche ;  and  now,  with  the  hope  that 
what  has  been  said  will  suffice  to  give  the  reader  a  correct  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  hieroglyphic  writing,  we  proceed  to  consider, 


II. HIERATIC    WRITING. 

This  is  a  running  form  of  hieroglyphics,  and  differs  from 
that  system  chiefly  in  the  more  frequent  substitution  of  what 
may  be  considered  alphabetic  characters  for  pictured  objects. 
In  many  instances,  however,  the  transition  from  the  picture  to 
the  letter  is  plain.  As  an  illustration  of  this,  we  subjoin  part 
of  the  sixth  line  of  the  hieroglyphical  inscription  on  the  Rosetta 
stone,  with  the  same  text  below,  in  hieratic  characters,  as 
drawn  up  by  Lepsius. 

m  %r  #i  %  «:?  s=* 

vu   £1  <k+   t  Ml  9  £¥ 

Clement  of  Alexandria  informs  us  that  this  character  was 
peculiar  to  the  priests,  hence  it  was  called  hieratic.  It  is  found 
in  the  papyri  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  tombs  of 
Egypt.  Some  of  these  papyri  contain  but  repetitions,  more  or 
less  abbreviated,  of  the  great  funeral  "  ritual "  or  Book  of  the 
Dead,  to  which  we  have  already  alluded.  Of  this  book,  Lep- 
sius has  published  a  copy,  which  plainly  shows  that  its  charac- 
ters were  frequently  but  linear  copies  of  the  sculptured  hiero- 
glyphics of  the  monuments.     Some  of  the  papyri  that  have 


HIERATIC  AND  ENCHORIAL   WRITING.  67 

been  found  contain  genealogies  of  kings,  revenues  of  temples, 
&c.  -  while  another  class  gives  details  of  the  expeditions  and 
foreign  conquests  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt.  As,  however, 
this  mode  of  writing  formed  part  of  the  instruction  of  the 
priestly  order  only,  it  never  (says  Bunsen)  could  have  held 
more  than  the  second  place  in  the  educational  system  of  the 
Egyptians. 

III.    THE    ENCHORIAL    OR    DEMOTIC    WRITING. 

This  is  what  Clement  called  the  epistolographical.  Of 
this  we  have  already  given  a  specimen  on  a  previous  page  ;* 
and  we  have  now  to  add  that,  in  the  opinion  of  Bunsen,  this 
also  is  derived  directly  from  the  hieroglyphic,  though  some 
have  supposed  it  to  proceed  from  the  hieratic.  He  supposes 
this  character  to  have  been  popularly  used  for  the  purposes  of 
common  life  ;  and  explains  the  fact  of  two  different  modes  of 
writing,  viz.,  the  hieratic  and  demotic,  having  been  derived, 
independent  of  each  other,  from  the  hieroglyphics  as  a  com- 
mon source,  by  the  circumstance  that  the  first  sprang  from 
the  Theban  dialect,  and  the  latter  from  the  Memphitic,  be- 
tween which  there  were  fundamental  differences.  It  seems, 
however,  to  be  certain,  that  whatever  may  have  been  its 
source,  the  enchorial  or  demotic  writing  is  comparatively 
modern,  and  probably  made  its  appearance  on  the  decline  of 
the  arts  in  Egypt.  It  is  believed  that  no  document  in  this 
character  has  been  yet  found  of  a  date  anterior  to  that  of  the 
Ptolemies  ;  and  this  in  Egypt  may  be  considered  modern. 

»  Ante,  p.  35. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Climate  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile. — Extreme  dryness.— -General  appearance  of 
Egyptian  ruins. — Temples,  tombs. — Arts  of  design  in  ancient  Egypt. — Princi- 
pal localities  on  the  Nile. 

It  may  serve  to  make  more  intelligible  what  follows,  to 
advert  here  to  the  general  appearance  of  the  Egyptian  ruins, 
the  arts  of  design  as  exhibited  in  painting  and  sculpture,  and 
the  climate  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  We  must  therefore 
detain  the  reader  for  a  short  time  with  the  consideration  of 
these. 

Egypt  is  a  valley  lying  between  two  ranges  of  mountains, 
that  extend  from  south  to  north  ;  and  is  bounded  also,  on 
three  of  its  sides,  by  deserts.  The  mountains  are  of  no  great 
elevation ;  on  the  east  are  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  interrupted 
only  by  the  comparatively  narrow  waters  of  the  Red  Sea ; 
while  on  the  south  and  west  stretches  out  the  vast  expanse  of 
sand  known  as  the  Libyan  desert,  reaching  on  the  south  into 
the  heart  of  Africa,  and  on  the  west,  to  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  position  of  Egypt,  therefore,  is  marked  by  a 
striking  peculiarity.  It  is  in  the  centre  of  the  largest  tract  of 
uninterrupted  sterility  and  sand,  on  the  face  of  our  globe ; 
and,  as  one  of  the  consequences  of  its  position,  rain  in  Lower 
Egypt  (which  is  the  only  Egypt  spoken  of  in  the  Mosaic  his- 
tory) is  generally  said  to  be  altogether  unknown.      It  has, 


rapr 


air  jtt     Jb        tt 


VALLEY  OF  THE  NILE.  69 

however,  been  known  to  fall  near  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  this,  however,  is  rare.  Even  in  the  Thebaid,  or  Upper 
Egypt,  where  it  has  sometimes  fallen,  its  appearance  is  so 
rare,  that  the  occurrence  is  deemed  very  remarkable. 

This  valley  which  we  have  described  is,  throughout  its 
whole  length,  traversed  by  the  river  Nile ;  which,  rising  in  the 
regions  south  of  ancient  Egypt,  holds  on  its  course  north- 
wardly, and  empties  its  waters  into  the  Mediterranean.  To 
this  river  Egypt  is  indebted  for  its  wondrous  fertility.  Ordi- 
narily the  waters  of  the  river  are  somewhat  muddy  ;  and  yet 
the  universal  testimony,  both  of  natives  and  foreigners,  bears 
witness  to  the  pleasantness  and  salubrity  of  the  water.  Place 
the  Egyptian  where  you  will,  there  is  no  physical  enjoyment 
of  his  country  which  memory  oftener  recalls,  or  for  which  he 
pines  with  more  irrepressible  longing,  than  for  the  waters  of 
his  beloved  river.  Regularly,  every  year,  about  the  time  of 
the  summer  solstice,  (June  21,)  the  waters  of  the  Nile  sud- 
denly change  their  appearance,  and  become  red  and  turbid, 
being  highly  charged  with  fine  black  alluvial  matter  washed 
down  by  the  torrents  from  the  table  lands  of  Abyssinia. 
They  begin  gradually  to  rise  within  the  banks  of  the  stream 
until  about  the  middle  of  July,  when  they  overflow  them; 
and  as  the  surface  of  the  valley  is  convex,  and  the  river  runs 
as  it  were  in  a  furrow  over  the  highest  part,  it  will  be  seen 
that  a  beautiful  provision  is  thus  made  by  nature  for  watering 
a  region,  that  otherwise  would  be  utterly  barren.  About  the 
20th  of  August,  the  valley  presents  the  appearance  of  a  great 
inland  sea,  spotted  over  with  villages  and  towns.  Causeways 
that  have  teen  laid  on  ridges  or  mounds  erected  for  the 
purpose,  furnish  the  only  means  of  land  communication  be- 
tween them. 


70 


EGYi'i   AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


Appearance  during  an  Inundation. 

About  the  period  of  the  autumnal  equinox  the  waters 
begin  to  subside,  and  before  the  end  of  November,  the  river  is 
once  more  within  its  banks.  The  skill  and  industry  of  the 
inhabitants  have  for  years  been  employed  to  increase,  by 
artificial  aids,  this  periodical  season  of  natural  irrigation.  By 
canals  and  embankments,  and  in  former  times,  by  artificial 
lakes  of  almost  incredible  size,  they  have  sought  to  lose  not 
the  smallest  advantage  that  could  be  derived  from  the  increase 
of  the  waters. 

Another  remarkable  feature  in  Egypt  is  the  extraordinary 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere.  The  question  has  sometimes  been 
asked,  how  it  has  been  possible  that  the  monuments  of  this 
ancient  nation  should  have  survived  the  touch  of  time  for  so 
many  centuries,  and,  though  dilapidated  in  some  degree, 
should  yet  present  to  the  eye  of  the  traveller, 

"  A  noble  wreck,  in  ruinous  perfection " 


so  widely  different  from  the  architectural  memorials  of  the 
past,  to  be  found  in  the  tropical  regions  of  our  own  Central 
America  and  Yucatan?  The  burning  sands  of  the  almost 
boundless  deserts  have  abstracted,  from  the  atmosphere  of 
Egypt,  the  great  physical  agent  in  the  decomposition  of  mat- 
ter,— moisture.     Hence  but  little  corrosion  of  the  monuments. 


I 


ATMOSPHERE  IN  EGYPT.  71 

but  little  obliteration  of  the  paintings,  is  found.  When  injury 
has  been  sustained  from  natural  causes,  it  has  been  produced 
by  other  physical  agencies  than  those  of  moisture :  the  sand 
has  sometimes  done  its  work  of  destruction.  Thus,  among 
the  ruins  of  Alexandria,  an  obelisk  is  still  standing,  which,  on  its 
north  and  east  faces,  retains  much  of  the  freshness  and  sharp- 
ness of  its  original  chiselling ;  while  on  the  other  two  sides,  the 
sands  of  the  desert,  which  have  been  beating  against  them  for 
several  hundred  years,  have  partially,  effaced  the  inscriptions. 
In  any  other  country  than  Egypt,  the  whole  would,  probably, 
long  since  have  been  destroyed.  A  few  years  ago,  the  French 
transported  an  obelisk  from  Luxor,  and  raised  it  in  Paris; 
and  though  the  material  is  granite,  and  though  for  many 
centuries  it  had  stood  uninjured  in  its  original  position ;  yet 
it  has  already  been  found  necessary  to  cover  it  with  a  liquid 
preparation  of  caoutchouc,  to  protect  it  from  the  corrosive 
effects  of  the  atmosphere  in  Paris. 

There  are  temples  in  Egypt  which  have  been  roofless  for 
2,000  years ;  their  walls  are  covered  with  paintings.  The 
colors  are  still  distinctly  perceptible,  and  in  many  instances, 
retain  all  their  original  freshness.  It  is  not  strange,  then,  that 
the  sculptured  stone  should  remain,  often  with  the  polish 
undimmed  that  it  received  from  the  hands  of  the  workmen, 
many  hundreds  of  years  ago.  Such  is  at  this  moment  the 
case  with  fragments  of  temples,  the  demolition  of  which  falls 
within  the  historic  period,  as  it  is  known  they  were  destroyed 
by  Cambyses,  500  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  same 
freshness,  the  same  strange  union  of  seeming  youth  with 
acknowledged  age,  is  also  to  be  seen  in  some  of  the  cavern 
temples  and  tombs,  excavated  in  the  sides  of  the  mountains. 
At  Aboo-simbul,  in  Nubia,  the  white  of  the  walls  is  unstained 


72  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

by  any  touch  of  time's  finger ;  the  outlines  of  the  figures  never 
could  have  been  sharper,  the  colors  of  the  paintings  never 
more  vivid,  than  they  are  now.  Indeed,  it  is  said,  that  when 
one  comes  to  that  part  where  the  tracings  and  outlines  show 
that  this  great  work  was  never  finished,  he  is  almost  cheated 
into  the  illusion  that  it  is  still  in  progress,  and  that  the  work- 
men have  but  temporarily  suspended  their  labors ;  so  fresh  is 
the  appearance  of  the  portion  that  is  completed.  But  for  the 
peculiarities  of  climate,  we  should  probably  at  this  day  have 
few  or  no  memorials  of  Egypt,  to  which  we  could  turn,  for 
the  study  of  her  history  and  progress  in  the  arts  of  civilized 
and  social  life.  For  the  last  1600  years  these  venerable  and 
interesting  ruins  have  been  utterly  neglected  by  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  no  Egyptian  hand  has  been  extended  to  prevent  the 
wantonness  of  destruction,  or  stay  the  ravages  of  dilapida- 
tion. The  marvel  is,  that  any  thing  remains  to  be  destroyed. 
Egypt  has  passed  through  strange  vicissitudes  since  the 
erection  of  the  pyramids  of  Ghizeh.  An  ancient  monarchy 
has  crumbled  into  ruins,  repeated  conquests  have  placed  over 
her  many  foreign  masters,  civil  wars  have  thinned  her  popu- 
lation, few  of  her  ancient  stock  are  left.  In  the  circum- 
stances that  must  have  attended  national  calamities  like 
these,  it  had  not  been  strange,  had  almost  every  architectural 
or  pictorial  vestige  of  the  past  been  lost  to  the  world  for  ever. 
Is  it  superstitious  to  suppose  that  there  may  have  been  a  Pro- 
vidence in  their  preservation  ?  Is  it  a  presumptuous  interpre- 
tation of  the  purpose  of  God  in  his  providence,  to  observe 
that  an  inquiring,  searching  spirit,  demanding  the  proof  of 
every  thing,  predominates  in  the  minds  of  men  at  the  present 
day ;  and  from  thence  to  infer  the  importance  of  this  opening 
of  a  new  and  hitherto  unexplored  field  of  inquiry,  and  the 


PALACE-TEMPLES.  73 

value  of  a  powerful  array  of  unanswerable  evidence  in  favor 
of  the  Scriptures,  which  doubtless  will  be  obtained  from  it  7 
May  it  not  be,  that  the  real  and  true  "  philosophy  of  this  age 
will  be  the  instrument  in  God's  hands  wherewith  he  will 
oppose  its  infidelity  ?"* 

The  remains  of  former  grandeur  in  this  most  interesting 
country,  consist  chiefly  of  edifices  connected  with  religious 
ceremonies,  and  of  places  for  civil  assemblies.  A  few  words 
of  explanation  on  these  may  prove  useful.  There  was  scarce 
a  city  of  note  in  Egypt  which  had  not  its  temple,  or,  as  it  has 
been  well  termed  by  some,  palace-temple,  serving  at  once  for 
the  residence  of  the  monarch  and  for  the  place  consecrated  to 
the  rites  of  religion,  or  appropriated  to  important  civil  assem- 
blies. On  these  ruins  are  found  sculptured  reliefs,  which  are 
generally  colored,  and  have  some  reference  to  the  false  god 
of  Egyptian  mythology,  in  whose  honor  they  were  erected. 
This  pagan  divinity  is  commonly  represented  as  receiving  the 
homage  of  the  king  by  whom  the  edifice  was  founded.  This 
representation  was  usually  delineated  on  the  propyla,  or  two 
truncated  pyramids,  which  stood,  one  on  either  side  of  the 
grand  entrance,  and  served  in  the  translation  of  its  reliefs  and 
hieroglyphics,  as  a  sort  of  title-page  to  what  was  within. 
An  example  is  afforded  in  the  view  of  Luxor,  annexed.  In 
the  interior,  by  means  both  of  sculpture  and  of  large  paintings 
on  the  walls,  the  battles,  sieges,  marches,  triumphs,  &c,  of 
the  king  were  delineated.  The  spoils  obtained  by  the  victor 
often  furnished,  as  it  is  supposed,  a  part  at  least  of  the  means 
employed  in  the  erection  of  the  edifice.  The  halls  in  the 
interior  are  sometimes  very  large,  as  at  Thebes,  for  instance, 

*  Osbora. 


74 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


where  there  are  some  six,  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  half 
that  distance  in  breadth,  supported  by  massive  columns  twelve 
feet  in  diameter,  and  sixty-six  feet  high,  placed  at  regular  in 
tervals  throughout  the  area  of  the  apartment.  The  walls, 
pillars,  &c,  are  covered  with  colossal  sculptures  of  deities, 
kings,  priests,  religious  processions,  &c,  while  on  the  walls 
similar  scenes  are  delineated  in  lively  paintings.  Some  idea 
may  be  formed  of  part  of  the  interior  of  one  of  these  halls  by 
the  frontispiece  to  this  volume. 

In  the  representations  of  triumphs,  the  costume,  and  pecu- 
liarities of  color  and  feature,  among  the  captives  of  different 
nations,  are  carefully  preserved,  and  often  render  essential  aid 
in  deciphering  the  sculptured  history  of  the  event  commemo- 
rated. Of  this  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  more  particu- 
larly hereafter.  In  almost  all  the  representations  of  conquests, 
the  king  is  represented  as  marching  in  triumph  to  the  temple, 
and  dragging  long  lines  of  captives,  fastened  by  the  neck,  and 


Negro  captives. 


%£Afca&&«&.Sa 


.» 


L   * 


TOMBS  OF  EGYPT.  75 

with  limbs  distorted  by  being  bound  in  the  most  painful  posi- 
tions. These  reliefs  are  always  accompanied  by  hieroglyphic 
inscriptions  explanatory  of  the  scene,  and  are  indispensable  in 
attaining  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the  representation. 
The  neglect  of  them  has  led  to  some  strange  errors.  The 
sculptured  representations  of  kings  invariably  have  their 
names  written  over  them,  and  commonly  inscribed  within  an 
oval  or  cartouche.  The  names  of  the  foreigners  with  whom 
they  were  at  war,  of  towns  they  were  besieging,  as  well  as  of 
the  captives  they  are  leading,  are  usually  written  in  the  hiero- 
glyphics :  sometimes  the  date  of  the  erection  of  the  edifice, 
and  of  the  king  by  whom  it  was  built,  may  be  read.  These 
dates  are  expressed  by  such  a  month  in  such  a  year  of  the 
monarch's  reign. 

The  tombs  of  Egypt  furnish  also  not  only  abundant  evi- 
dence of  her  former  grandeur,  but  also  very  valuable  subjects 
of  study  to  the  antiquarian.  In  Upper  Egypt,  rocky  moun- 
tains form  the  western  boundary  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  In 
these,  immense  caverns  were  cut,  with  incredible  labor,  as 
receptacles  for  the  dead.  In  Lower  Egypt,  where  no  moun- 
tains exist,  deep  pits  were  dug,  and  lined  with  brick ;  or, 
where  rock  existed,  they  were  dug  into  the  rock,  as  places  of 
interment.  Nothing  presents  itself  in  the  study  of  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  ancient  Egypt,  as  developed  in  her  exist- 
ing remains,  more  striking  than  the  respect  shown  to  the  dead. 
Diodorus  has  remarked,  that  the  Egyptians  spent  more  upon 
their  tombs  than  they  did  upon  their  houses.  Some  of  the 
cemeteries  are  filled  with  the  remains  of  the  common  people. 
These  are  not  always  in  coffins,  but,  enveloped  in  the  folds  of 
the  linen  with  which  they  were  swathed,  they  are  piled  in  the 
mummy  pits  with  great  regularity.    They  were  all  embalmed, 


76  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

and  the  number  is  immense.  Again,  there  are  the  family 
vaults  of  the  wealthy,  the  priesthood,  the  military,  &c.  These 
are  sometimes  very  extensive,  consisting  of  various  rooms  con- 
nected by  galleries,  with  the  walls  of  the  apartments  covered 
with  paintings.  The  scenes  delineated  most  commonly  have 
reference  to  the  operations  of  ordinary  life.  The  deceased  is 
represented  with  his  family  around  him ;  sometimes  they  are 
at  the  banquet,  sometimes  listening  to  music,  or  amusing 
themselves  with  the  dance.  Again,  he  is  seen  in  the  country, 
hunting,  fowling,  or  fishing ;  next,  he  is  superintending  agri- 
cultural labors.  In  short,  almost  every  species  of  mechanical 
trade  is  depicted  in  the  tombs :  all  are  scenes  of  activity,  and 
it  has  been  well  said,  that  "  every  thing  in  them  savors  of  life, 
but  the  corpse."  The  predominant  wish  seems  to  have  been, 
to  banish  from  them  all  that  could  suggest  the  idea  of  death ; 
and  the  only  explanation  that  offers  itself  of  this  singular 
custom  is,  that  the  proprietor  of  the  tomb  employed  himself, 
while  living,  in  the  preparation  for  his  posterity  of  what  may 
be  called  a  pictorial  autobiography.  But  the  aristocratic  dead 
of  these  costly  resting-places,  unlike  the  poor,  whose  swathed 
mummies  are  packed  in  tiers,  sleep  in  their  respective  sarco- 
phagi of  granite,  basalt,  or  alabaster,  sculptured  over  with 
figures  and  inscriptions,  which  it  is  charitable  to  suppose  are 
at  least  as  truthful  as  the  majority  of  modern  epitaphs.  These 
stone  coffins,  it  was  doubtless  supposed  by  their  occupants, 
would  protect  their  bodies,  after  death,  from  an  unhallowed 
disinterment ;  but  the  very  care  taken  to  secure  their  remains 
from  violation  has  often  led  to  the  desecration  against  which 
they  would  guard.  The  linen  bandage  around  the  common 
mummy  of  the  pits  offered  nothing  to  the  decipherer,  while  the 
inscriptions  on  the  sarcophagus  afforded  to  the  zealous  antiqua- 


ARTS  OF  DESIGN.  77 

rian  an  opportunity  not  to  be  neglected,  of  adding  characters 
to  his  hieroglyphic  alphabet,  or  words  to  his  Egyptian  vocabu- 
lary. Many  of  the  cabinets  of  Europe  can  show  fragments 
of  sarcophagi ;  few  take  the  trouble  to  preser/e  many  speci- 
mens of  the  common  mummy  of  the  pit.  Sometimes  these 
wealthy  dead  were  coffined  in  a  wooden  case,  or  double 
case,  of  sycamore,  covered  with  gilding  and  painting.  These, 
as  they  offered  the  same  temptation  as  the  inscribed  sarcopha- 
gus, have  often  shared  the  same  fate.  But  the  tombs  contain 
beside  the  dead,  other  articles,  the  removal  of  which  involves 
no  charge  of  desecration.  With  the  dead  it  was  usual  to 
deposit,  in  the  tombs,  articles  of  luxury  on  which  they  had  set 
a  value  while  living ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  humble  artisan, 
the  tools  or  utensils  which  he  used  in  life,  were  laid  with  him 
when  he  rested  from  his  toil.  Hence  various  objects  of  inter- 
est have  been  found  in  the  tombs.  Elegant  vases  of  granite, 
alabaster,  metal,  and  earth  are  abundant  in  the  various  muse- 
ums of  Europe.  The  tools  of  the  mason  and  carpenter,  arti- 
cles of  household  furniture,  models  of  boats  and  houses,  the 
pallets  used  by  the  sacred  scribes,  with  their  cakes  of  ink  and 
reed  pens  or  brushes,  with  various  other  articles,  are  by  no 
means  uncommon.  Books  written  on  rolls  of  the  papyrus 
(made  from  the  inner  coat  of  a  species  of  reed  once  abundant 
on  the  canals  and  lakes  of  Egypt,  though  now  rarely  to  be 
met  with)  are  also  found,  sometimes  inclosed  in  the  swathings 
of  the  mummy,  sometimes  in  hollow  cases  of  wood  or  in 
earthen  jars. 

It  has  thus  happened,  that  though  we  have  no  continuous 
written  history  of  ancient  Egypt,  yet,  from  a  combination  of 
unusual  circumstances,  we  actually  know  more  of  the  details 
of  every-day  life  among  its  ancient  people,  than  we  do  of  such 


78  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

particulars  in  any  other  nation  of  antiquity.  These  details 
have  already  served  to  elucidate  such  fragments  of  their  his- 
tory as  are  contained  in  the  imperfect  accounts  of  the  Greek 
writers ;  and  we  trust  they  will  be  found  also  to  confirm  and 
elucidate  the  more  accurate  accounts  that  we  have,  in  the 
sacred  writings,  of  another  and  not  less  interesting  people. 

In  inspecting  the  specimens  of  sculpture  and  painting  pre- 
sented in  the  remains  of  ancient  Egypt,  one  is  forcibly  struck 
with  the  manifold  defects  to  be  found  generally,  alike  in  the 
design  and  execution  ;  and  these  are  the  more  surprising, 
when  occasionally  some  specimen  is  met  with  confessedly  of 
high  merit,  as  exhibiting  practised  artistic  skill.  It  is  observa- 
ble also,  that  these  better  specimens  are  delineations  of  some- 
thing other  than  the  human  figure.  Perhaps  a  reason  for  this 
may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  found  in  a  consideration  of  the 
purpose  to  which  the  Egyptians  applied  the  arts  of  design. 
The  effort  was  not  with  them,  as  with  the  Greeks,  (from 
whom  modern  art  is  derived,)  to  speak  through  the  eye  to  the 
imagination  ;  theirs  was  the  more  matter-of-fact  business  of 
addressing  the  understanding.  They  were  not  seeking  the 
beautiful,  but  the  useful  merely.  Clement  of  Alexandria  says 
truly  that  an  Egyptian  temple  was  yQa^fxa,  "  a  writing ;" 
and  grace  was  not  the  prime  object  of  the  manuscript.  The 
painting  and  sculpture  of  Egypt  were  meant,  then,  simply  to 
convey  facts,  or  what  it  was  intended  should  be  considered 
facts.  The  characters  by  which  they  sought  to  do  it  were 
but  visible  and  often  rude  imitations  of  sensible  objects  ;  the 
heavenly  bodies,  men,  brutes,  birds,  fishes,  dress,  furniture,  &c. 

In  fulfilling  their  design,  therefore,  it  was  more  important 
to  convey  the  idea  correctly  and  avoid  mistakes,  than  it  was 
to  produce  a  finished  work  of  art.     Hence  the  representation 


EGYPTIAN  ART.  79 

of  the  human  figure  seldom  affords  proof  of  elaboration  in  its 
execution ;  a  very  rude  sketch  was  sufficient  to  show  that 
nothing  but  man  could  be  meant  by  it ;  commonly  the  face 
and  lower  limbs  are  in  profile,  while  the  body  is  presented 
with  its  full  front ;  proportion  also  is  sometimes  utterly 
neglected.  In  fact,  the  rough  drawing  served  but  to  spell 
the  word  man,  while  the  hieroglyphics  above  it,  informed 
him  who  could  read  them,  who  or  what  the  man  was.  But 
in  the  very  same  picture,  perhaps,  containing  a  rough  sketch 
of  the  human  figure,  birds,  or  other  objects  would  be  repre- 
sented, drawn  with  great  spirit,  and  colored  with  a  minute 
attention  to  nature.  Accuracy  of  delineation  was  resorted  to 
when  such  accuracy  was  necessary  to  guard  against  mistakes, 
and  it  was  therefore  required  to  show  the  species  of  the  bird 
represented.  All  that  the  artist  sought  was  to  convey  an  idea 
with  precision,  and  in  doing  this  he  could  call  in  the  aid  of 
hieroglyphics,  both  symbolic  and  phonetic.  It  was  perhaps 
strange  that  he  did  not  think  of  using  either  painting  or 
hieroglyphics  separately,  to  accomplish  his  object ;  but  so  it 
was  that,  using  both,  he  could  effect  his  purpose,  and  he  con- 
sequently made  no  effort  at  improvement.  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  supposed  that  there  was  entire  absence  of  artistic  skill 
in  the  Egyptians,  when  they  found  an  occasion  for  its  exer- 
cise. There  are  not  wanting  statues  executed  by  them,  in 
which  the  anatomical  proportions  of  the  human  figure  are 
carefully  represented ;  they  unquestionably,  also,  were  suffi- 
ciently minute  and  accurate  in  their  work  to  produce  portraits 
when  necessary.  It  was,  therefore,  not  want  of  capacity 
entirely  that  caused  the  productions  of  Egyptian  art  to  fall 
so  far  short  of  the  polished  works  of  the  Grecian  chisel ;  their 
defects  were  purposed. 


80  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

There  was,  however,  one  department  of  drawing,  in  which 
all  the  specimens  yet  seen,  would  justify  the  conclusion  that 
they  were  entirely  ignorant.  They  knew  nothing  of  per- 
spective, and  some  of  their  devices  to  remedy  defects  arising 
from  this  cause,  are  clumsy  in  the  extreme.  Thus,  if  it 
became  necessary  to  depict  three  sides  of  an  apartment,  (as 
may  be  seen  in  the  pictures  of  some  of  the  granaries,)  a  sepa- 
rate elevation  of  each  wall  was  made,  and  the  distant  end 
of  the  room  was  placed,  in  the  drawing,  above  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  sides,  as  an  entirely  separate  feature.  From  these 
and  other  causes,  it  requires  some  little  practice  and  famili- 
arity with  the  representations  in  Egyptian  paintings  and  re- 
liefs, to  understand  them.  They  present,  at  first,  an*  indis- 
tinctness and  confusion  that  make  their  comprehension  difficult 

There  was  another  particular  in  which,  as  artists,  they 
were  deficient.  They  seem  to  have  known  little  or  nothing  of 
the  application,  in  their  coloring,  of  light  and  shade ;  nor  is  there 
now  remembered  among  all  the  specimens  yet  seen,  a  solitary 
attempt  at  what  is  termed  by  artists,  foreshortening.  In  their 
ignorance  of  perspective,  and  light  and  shade,  it  is  perhaps 
worthy  of  note  that  they  find,  at  this  day,  an  exact  resem- 
blance in  one  of  the  most  ancient  civilized  nations  of  the 
world,  the  Chinese. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Localities  on  the  Nile 

Before  we  enter  upon  the  direct  work  of  a  comparison  of  the 
Bible  with  existing  Egyptian  remains,  we  beg  leave  to  detain 
the  reader  with  such  an  account  of  a  voyage  on  the  Nile, 
and  such  a  description  of  its  most  interesting  sites  and  ruins, 
gathered  from  authentic  sources,  as  may  perhaps  serve  to  re- 
lieve the  tedium  of  discussions  which  may  seem  dry ;  and, 
at  all  events,  aid  in  fixing  in  the  mind  important  localities. 

To  the  European  or  American  visiting  Egypt,  the  Nile 
itself  must  be  a  wonder,  inviting  observation  and  study.  Its 
immense  length,  its  mysterious  commencement,  its  broad,  deep 
current,  unfed  by  tributaries,  bearing  its  mighty  volume  of 
waters  to  the  ocean,  its  surface  elevated  above  the  adjacent 
country,  its  sudden  winds,  its  annual  overflow,  so  indispensa- 
ble to  the  comfort  and  even  life  of  thousands  of  human  beings  ; 
its  geological  aspects ;  all  these  invest  the  river  itself  with 
unusual  interest,  and  suggest  to  the  thoughtful  mind  subjects 
for  study,  independent  of  the  monuments  on  its  shores,  which 
so  alluringly  invite  us  to  wander  in  the  mists  of  their  shadowy 
antiquity.  To  one  familiar  with  our  own  Mississippi,  there 
6 


82  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

may,  indeed,  be  some  few  features  not  altogether  new ;  and 
some  few  of  the  Egyptian  customs,  in  purifying  the  waters  of 
the  stream  for  use,  &c,  may  recall  to  the  traveller  from  the 
western  part  of  our  country,  thoughts  of  home  :  but  in  general, 
all  is  novelty,  and  none  the  less  striking  for  being  a  novelty 
founded  on  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  usages  of  a  remote 
antiquity. 

Almost  every  traveller  pauses  in  his  narrative  to  dwell  on 
the  impressions  produced  by  his  first  sight  of  and  acquaint- 
ance with  the  river  of  Egypt,  even  before  he  has  had  time  to 
see,  much  less  study  the  interesting  memorials  on  its  banks. 
A  very  spirited  writer,  who,  without  entering  into  philosophi- 
cal disquisitions  and  learned  investigations,  is  content  to  tell 
us,  in  a  very  agreeable  manner,  what  he  saw,  thus  describes 
his  sensations : 

"  I  hastened  on  board  ;  the  sun  had  sunk  and  given  place 
to  a  rosy  twilight,  and  the  moon  peeped  up  above  the  rich 
level  of  the  Delta.  And  here  I  must  notice,  that  what  recon- 
ciles the  traveller  to  this  land  of  plagues — of  flies  and  beggars, 
of  dogs  and  dust  and  vermin,  is  not  alone  the  monumental 
wonders  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  but  the  beauty  of  the  cli- 
mate, the  lightness  of  the  air,  inspiring  a  genial  luxury  of  sen- 
sation, the  glorious  unfailing  sunset,  and  serene  twilight, 
reflected  in  the  noble  river,  and  casting  over  the  hoary  remains 
of  antiquity  a  glow  and  gorgeousness  of  hue  which  heightens 
their  melancholy  grandeur,  and  gilding  over  a  mud  village 
until  even  its  filth  and  misery  are  forgotten.  I  mounted  the 
roof  of  the  little  cabin  as  the  broad  latine  sail  swelled  smoothly 
under  the  pressure  of  the  Etesian  wind,  which,  at  this  season 
of  the  inundation,  by  a  wonderful  provision  of  nature,  blows 
steadily  from  the  north,  thus  alone  enabling  vessels  to  stem 


FIRST  VIEW  OF  THE  NILE.  83 

the  powerful  current  of  the  rising  Nile.  I  had  embarked  on 
that  ancient  and  sacred  river,  renewing  before  my  eyes  its 
majestic  current,  diffusing  the  same  blessings  to  its  rich  valley  as 
it  had  done  in  the  days  when  Egypt  was  a  mighty  kingdom, 
when  Thebes  and  Memphis  and  the  pyramids  arose  upon  its 
borders.  The  rich  fans  of  the  plume-like  palms  on  the  banks 
were  painted  on  the  warm  glow  of  the  westward  horizon,  the 
level  valley  with  its  wealth  of  production  spread  away  in  dusky 
haze,  but  the  breeze  brought  off  from  the  shore  its  odorous 
musky  fragrance,  lamps  twinkled  in  the  cottages,  and  cast 
their  reflections  into  the  glassy  stream — the  noise  and  babble 
of  the  Fellahs,  and  sounds  of  the  Darrabuka,  or  Egyptian 
drum,  came  off  and  died  away  as  we  sailed  past  the  villages 
on  the  bank.  The  boat,  with  her  broad  sails  and  her  long 
wake  whitening  in  the  moon,  and  her  Arab  crew,  lying  upon 
deck,  chanting  their  peculiar  and  plaintive  songs,  flew  rapidly 
along  through  those  historic  waters.  I  sat  up  to  a  late  hour, 
so  delightful  was  my  first  impression  of  the  patriarch  of 
rivers." 

The  scenery  on  the  Lower  Nile  is,  on  the  whole,  monoto- 
nous, yet,  from  its  very  strangeness,  fixes  the  traveller's  atten- 
tion. 

"  The  villages  of  mud  huts,  embowered  in  palm  groves 
that  line  the  bank,  with  their  pretty  white  minarets,  and  their 
noisy  babbling  crowd  of  Fellahs — the  glimpses  of  the  vivid 
green  valley  and  its  yellow  desert  boundary,  like  life  and  death 
in  startling  juxtaposition  and  contrast — the  sandy  shoals 
covered  with  pelicans  or  ibises  of  brilliant  white  plumage, 
large  flights  of  wild  fowls  and  of  pigeons  from  the  villages, — 
the  picturesque  boats  with  their  gay-colored  passengers, — the 
men  paddling  along  on  rafts  of  water-melons  or  pottery, — -the 


84  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

little  thronged  cafes  under  the  deep  shade  of  a  grove  of  syca- 
mores and  palms, — the  creaking  'Sakias,'  or  water-wheels 
used  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation,  all  form  a  sort  of  slow,  mov- 
ing panorama,  which,  seen  under  a  brilliant  sky,  by  their  lively 
novelty,  serve  to  amuse  for  a  while  the  tedium  of  our  noon- 
day progress." 

Interesting,  however,  as  the  river  is  when  confined  within 
its  banks,  it  presents  a  picture  nowhere  else  to  be  seen  at  the 
period  of  its  annual  overflow. 

"  When  the  river  has  attained  its  maximum,  very  singular 
is  the  appearance  of  the  whole  country.  On  the  high-raised 
bank  you  stand,  as  it  were,  between  two  seas,  beholding  on 
one  side  the  swollen  turbid  flood,  hurrying  down  rapidly  in  its 
irresistible  might,  and  on  the  other,  the  inundated  expanse, 
extending  to  the  desert  boundary  of  the  valley ;  the  isolated 
villages  in  their  groves  are  scattered  about  like  floating  islands, 
the  palm-trees  half  buried,  and,  except  in  a  few  places,  the 
Gise,  or  dyke,  affords  the  sole  circuitous  communication  from 
one  place  to  another.  As  it  begins  to  fall,  the  sower,  wading 
into  the  mud,  literally  '  casts  his  bread  upon  the  waters'  which 
cover  the  recent  and  still  liquid  deposit ;  when  the  water  drains 
off  from  particular  places,  a  carpet  of  the  most  vivid  green 
immediately  follows  in  its  train,  and  the  face  of  the  land  glows 
with  a  new-created  beauty.  The  level  of  the  alluvial  land, 
as  well  as  the  bed  of  the  river,  are  gradually  raised,  so  that 
the  constant  aggression  of  the  sandy  desert  on  the  fertile  val- 
ley, from  which  some  have  anticipated  the  ultimate  destruction 
of  the  latter,  is,  though  triumphant  at  some  points,  continually 
counteracted  in  the  main,  by  the  eternally  vivifying  influence 
of  the  waters.  The  river,  to  whose  beneficent  agency  the 
ancient  Egyptians  owed  their  greatness,  was,  with  their  cha- 


CAIRO.  85 

racteristic  reverence  of  spirit,  regarded  by  them  as  peculiarly- 
sacred." 

But  it  is  time  to  leave  the  river  ;  and  Cairo  first  invites  our 
notice. 

This  is  essentially  an  Arabian  city.  In  the  year  638  Amer 
conquered  Egypt,  and  wrested  it  from  the  Byzantine  emperors  ; 
and  he  founded  Fostat,  or  Old  Cairo,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 
In  868,  Tooloon,  who  governed  Egypt  under  the  Caliph,  threw 
off  his  allegiance,  and  built,  to  the  eastward  of  Fostat,  a  palace 
and  a  mosque,  which  served  as  the  nucleus  of  the  present 
Cairo.  In  923,  the  Fatimites  invaded  Egypt  successfully, 
and,  extending  to  the  eastward  of  the  mosque  of  Tooloon, 
founded  the  present  city.  At  length  the  renowned  Saladin 
became  sovereign  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  added  largely  to 
Cairo,  strongly  fortifying  it,  and  building  a  citadel  on  Mount 
Mokattam.  During  the  Crusades,  efforts  were  made  more 
than  once  by  the  Christian  armies  to  take  it ;  but  it  never  fell 
into  their  hands. 

"  Cairo  has  been  well  described  as  occupying  the  natural 
centre  of  Egypt.  Heliopolis  was  only  five  miles  below,  and 
the  site  of  Memphis  not  more  than  ten  miles  above  the  pre- 
sent capital.  The  position  commands  the  approaches  to 
Upper  Egypt,  and  is  upon  the  direct  and  natural  thorough- 
fare between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  at  pre- 
sent nearly  three  miles  from  the  Nile,  a  branch  of  which,  how- 
ever, formerly  flowed  much  nearer  to  it,  and  about  twelve 
miles  south  of  the  upper  or  southern  termination  of  the  Delta. 
There  the  river  is  divided  into  two  channels,  through  which 
its  waters  flow  into  the  Mediterranean,  one  diverging  to  the 
northwest,  the  other  to  the  northeast,  thus  giving  a  triangu- 
lar form  to  the  alluvial  region   below.     Cairo  is  chiefly  built 


86  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

upon  the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Nile,  but  the  eastern  part  of  the 
city  rests  upon  the  lower  declivity  of  Mount  Mokattam,  a  part 
of  the  long  range  which  separates  Egypt  from  the  Desert  of 
the  Red  Sea.  Thus  while  from  its  northern  and  western  gates 
you  issue  forth  at  once  into  the  luxuriant  verdure  of  the  Delta, 
from  its  southern  and  eastern  you  plunge  as  suddenly  into  an 
arid  wilderness." 

Probably  no  more  complete  Arabian  city  now  exists, 
for,  as  yet,  few  foreign  innovations  have  been  made,  though 
the  work  has  begun.  In  the  interior  of  the  city  may  be 
found,  here  and  there,  a  public  square  ;  but  its  streets  are  nar- 
row and  crooked  lanes,  the  widest  of  which  are  barely  wide 
enough  to  permit  two  loaded  camels  to  pass  abreast.  The 
houses  are  built  in  successive  stories,  each  overlapping  that 
below,  from  the  latticed  windows  of  which  the  inmates  can 
look  upon  the  passengers  in  the  street,  while  they  themselves 
are  concealed.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  Jews'  quarter,  the  sto- 
ries of  opposite  houses  approach  nearer  and  nearer,  until  at  the 
top  they  actually  meet.  Over  the  doors  of  the  houses  the 
ancient  Egyptian  custom  of  an  inscription  is  still  observed, 
and  these  now  are  generally  of  a  religious  character.  By  the 
sides  of  the  walls  are  frequently  to  be  seen  what  are  called 
"  sibeels,"  or  public  fountains,  often  the  work  of  private  bene- 
volence, in  a  land  where  water  is  among  the  first  of  blessings. 
Whoever  pleases  (says  a  traveller  of  our  own  country)  ascends 
the  two  or  three  steps  from  the  street,  takes  a  metal  cup 
through  an  aperture  in  the  gilt  iron- work,  and  drinks  his  fill. 
The  cup  is  fastened  by  a  chain. 

The  crowd  in  the  streets  is  represented  as  incessant,  and 
in  almost  every  variety  of  costume.  The  Bazaars  are  objects 
of  striking  interest  to  strangers. 


BAZAARS  AT  CAIRO.  87 

"  Through  a  labyrinth  of  these  narrow  streets  we  advance 
into  the  Bazaars.  These,  in  an  oriental  city,  are  the  great 
gathering  place  of  the  population,  the  centre  of  traffic,  the  seat 
of  flying  rumors,  and  the  lurking  place  of  secret  conspiracies. 
They  consist  of  one  main  avenue  running  through  the  centre 
of  the  city,  with  endless  and  intricate  branches,  generally 
covered,  and  some  of  them  sunk  into  a  twilight  obscurity.  The 
crowd  that  pours  through  them  is  incessant.  Each  trade  has 
its  separate  '  sook'  or  quarter,  and  there  are  numerous  '  Weka- 
lehs'  or  Khans,  for  the  reception  of  merchandise,  large  courts 
opening  from  the  Bazaars,  surrounded  with  buildings,  and 
defended  by  strong  gates,  which  are  kept  closed  at  night. 
The  whole  scene  is  marvellously  original ;  every  turn  presents 
us  with  a  fresh  picture  of  oriental  life  and  manners." 

The  citadel  stands  on  a  spur  of  the  mountain,  and  the  road 
to  it  is  partly  cut  through  the  sandstone  of  which  the  moun- 
tain consists. 

"  The  walls  are  solid,  and  in  some  places  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  feet  high.  Passing  through  its  entrance  court,  we 
come  upon  a  terrace  commanding  one  of  the  grandest  prospects 
in  the  world.  Cairo,  with  its  countless  number  of  carved 
domes  and  fantastic  minarets,  is  taken  in  at  a  glance.  To  the 
eastward,  in  a  secluded  valley  separated  from  the  city,  the 
long  range  of  the  tombs  of  the  Memlook  sultans  stretches  into 
the  distant  desert  towards  Suez.  On  the  south  extends  the 
dense  verdure  of  the  Delta,  a  dark  green  streak  which  comes 
up  abruptly  to  the  edge  of  the  yellow  sands.  There  stood 
Heliopolis,  the  most  learned  city  of  Egypt,  and  there  yet  stands 
its  obelisk,  upon  which  Abraham  may  have  gazed  with  curi- 
osity as  he  entered  that  wonderful  land.  But  it  is  to  the 
westward  that  the  chief  glories  of  the  scene  expand  ;  the  long 


88  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

range  of  the  dusky  pyramids,  from  the  nearer  ones  of  Ghizeh 
to  those  of  Sakhara  and  Dashoor,  standing  in  sublime  serenity 
above  the  site  of  vanished  Memphis,  sole  but  most  glorious 
relics  of  the  pride  and  power  of  the  early  Egyptian  kings  of 
Lower  Egypt ;  pointing  backward  from  an  antiquity  already 
hoary,  through  a  long  and  dim  vista  of  unknown  monarchs, 
towards  the  unknown  origin  of  civilization." 

The  general  internal  arrangement  of  private  dwellings  is 
thus  described  by  Bartlett : 

"Coolness,  together  with  that  seclusion  required  by  the 
domestic  habits  of  the  Orientals,  are  the  principal  points  which 
have  been  studied  in  all  their  arrangements.  The  foundation- 
walls  are  of  stone,  and  the  superstructure  of  brick ;  the  lower 
windows  in  those  facing  the  streets  are  above  the  line  of  vision, 
even  of  persons  on  horseback ;  the  windows  of  the  upper  sto- 
ries project  into  the  street,  and  are  carried  out  and  cased  exter- 
nally by  wooden  lattice  work,  sufficiently  open  to  admit  the 
air  and  light,  which  comes  thus  softly  veiled  into  the  interior, 
enabling  those  within  to  obtain  a  view  into  the  street  without, 
while  they  are  themselves  entirely  concealed  from  the  closest 
scrutiny  of  passengers,  or  even  opposite  neighbors.  In  addi- 
tion, these  windows  are  generally  shaded  by  a  projecting  cor- 
nice of  carved  wood-work,  casting  deep  shadows  over  the 
iront,  of  graceful  and  ornamental  patterns.  In  the  narrower 
streets  these  nearly  or  quite  meet,  but  in  new  houses  they  are 
being  gradually  lessened,  while  the  rich  and  raised  carving  is 
giving  place  to  glass  and  lattice  of  a  simpler  character,  so  that 
by  degrees  the  picturesque  aspect  of  the  streets  will  be  much 
impaired.  A  winding  passage  usually  leads  through  the  orna- 
mented doorway  into  a  court,  into  which  the  apartments  look, 
with  doors  conducting  to  the  harem — the  upper  apartments, 


HELIOPOLIS.  gg 

exclusively  occupied  by  the  women  and  children,  with  the 
master.  In  the  court  is  generally  '  a  well  of  slightly  brack- 
ish water,  which  niters  through  the  soil  from  the  Nile ;  and 
on  its  most  shaded  side  are  commonly  two  water  jars,  which 
are  daily  replenished  with  Nile  water,  brought  from  the  river 
in  skins.'    There  is  sometimes  also  a  palm-tree." 

But  it  is  time  to  leave  Cairo  for  the  chief  objects  of  interest 
in  its  vicinity.  A  ride  of  two  hours  is  sufficient  to  reach  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Heliopolis,  or  On.  A  little  beyond  the  mo- 
dern village  of  Matareeh  the  traveller  enters  the  area  of  Heli- 
opolis, between  the  mounds  caused  by  the  ruins  of  the  crude 
brick  walls  which  once  surrounded  it.  The  area  is  small,  not 
more  than  three-fourths  by  one-half  of  a  mile.  In  fact,  the  city 
was  never  large,  having  been  a  collection  merely  of  colleges 
and  temples  ;  but  of  great  renown  as  the  chief  seat  of  Egyptian 
learning.  Here,  probably,  Moses  became  learned  in  all  the  wis- 
dom of  the  Egyptians ;  here  Strabo  was  shown  the  house  in 
which  Plato  and  Eudoxus  lived  for  thirteen  years ;  and  here,  too, 
Plato  is  supposed  to  have  learned  the  doctrine  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  which  undoubtedly  was  part  of  the  faith  of 
ancient  Egypt.  The  area  is  now  a  ploughed  field,  containing 
a  garden  of  herbs ;  and  the  sole  memorial  left  of  its  former 
grandeur  is  the  obelisk  of  Osirtasen  I.,  which  may  be  seen 
from  afar,  lifting  its  head  high  above  the  grove  of  acacia  and 
date-trees  in  which  it  stands.  The  base  of  the  obelisk  is  now 
buried  several  feet  in  the  earth,  deposited  by  successive  inun- 
dations ;  and  bearing  as  it  does  the  name  of  Osirtasen  I.,  the 
monument  establishes  its  claim  to  a  high  antiquity.  It  proba- 
bly stood  in  the  days  of  Joseph,  and  Osirtasen  I.  is  supposed 
to  have  built  the  older  part  of  the  great  temple  of  Karnac,  in 
the  day  of  Theban  splendor. 


90  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Ascending  the  river,  a  little  above  Cairo,  on  the  western 
side  of  the  stream,  are  the  pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  Saqqara,  and 
Dashour. 

"  The  pyramids  of  Ghizeh"  (thus  writes  a  modern  traveller) 
"  are  numerous ;  but  those  which  are  spoken  of  as  the  pyra- 
mids are  three  in  number ;  they  are  situated  at  the  confines  of 
the  great  Libyan  desert,  on  a  bed  of  limestone  rock  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sand,  and  one 
hundred  and  sixty  above  the  river.  There  is  now  scarcely  a 
vestige  of  the  ruins  of  Memphis ;  but  sufficient  observation  has 
been  made  to  determine  the  site  of  that  ancient  city ;  and  the 
pyramids  are  believed  to  mark  the  situation  of  its  western  sub- 
urbs." The  Greek  writers,  who  have  said  any  thing  illustrat- 
ing the  history  of  Egypt,  all  concur  in  stating  that  it  was  the 
unanimous  tradition  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  that  the  pyramids 
were  the  oldest  of  their  monuments. 

According  to  Manetho,  the  three  great  pyramids  at  Mem- 
phis were  built  by  the  first  three  kings  of  the  fourth  dynasty. 
In  a  small  tomb  near  the  great  pyramid,  the  name  of  the 
founder  has  been  discovered.  Manetho  writes  it  in  Greek, 
2ov(pig  (Suphis) ;  Eratosthenes  says  that,  in  Egyptian,  this 
means  xofiaaTog,  i.  e.  "  one  who  has  much  hair."  The  phone- 
tic hieroglyphics,  it  is  said,  furnish  as  the  name,  two  words, 
which  in  Coptic  mean  "  much  hair."  The  name  of  his  son, 
who  founded  the  second  pyramid,  has  also  been  discovered  in 
an  adjacent  tomb.  In  the  cartouche  it  reads  She-fre.  Mane- 
tho calls  him  Suphis  II.,  and  Herodotus  writes  it  Cephrenes. 
Col.  Yyse  deciphered  the  name  of  the  founder  of  the  third 
pyramid  on  the  remains  of  a  coffin,  which  he  discovered  in  the 
interior  of  it.  The  name,  as  usual,  is  in  a  cartouche ;  read 
off  into  characters  familiar  to  us,  it  is  Men-ka-re.     According 


PYRAMIDS  OF  GHIZEH.  91 

to  Manetho,  the  name  of  the  builder  of  the  third  pyramid  was 
Mencheres. 

We  gladly  enrich  our  pages  with  the  lively  narrative 
afforded  by  a  modern  traveller  of  his  visit  to  these  most  an- 
cient of  Egypt's  records  of  stone  ;  trusting  that  an  apology  for 
its  length  will  be  found  in  its  interest. 

"  We  determined,  however,  to  pass  a  night  at  Ghizeh,  and 
to  see  the  sun  rise  from  the  summit  of  the  great  pyramid. 
But  little  preparation  is  needful,  some  of  the  excavated  tombs 
serving  as  a  nightly  shelter,  and  the  neighboring  Arabs  fur- 
nishing milk  and  other  necessaries.  Some  cold  provisions  and 
a  few  candles  were  all  with  which  we  chose  to  encumber  our- 
selves. We  set  forth  from  Cairo  in  the  midst  of  one  of  those 
afternoon  tempests  of  hot  suffocating  dust  which  are  among 
its  most  tormenting  plagues,  penetrating  into  the  inmost  re- 
cesses of  the  houses.  The  air  came  in  hot  gusts  like  blasts 
from  the  mouth  of  a  furnace ;  the  impalpable  sand  whirled 
and  eddied  through  the  narrow  crowded  streets,  filling  the 
mouth,  ears,  and  eyes,  and  obscuring  all  but  the  nearest  ob- 
jects in  a  cloud  of  pale  red  haze.  We  kept  on  our  way  never- 
theless ;  by  the  time  we  reached  the  open  suburbs,  the  squall 
gradually  passed  over ;  and  when  we  reached  the  ferry  over 
the  Nile  at  Old  Cairo,  the  sky  was  perfectly  serene. 

"  This  ferry  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  as  well  as  bustling 
spots  in  Egypt.  The  light  arabesque  houses  and  swarming 
cafes  of  Old  Cairo  run  parallel  with  the  river,  and  in  front  is 
an  open  space  piled  up  with  immense  heaps  of  corn,  which, 
in  this  dry  climate,  are  left  without  danger  in  the  open  air. 
There  are  women  selling  rich  clusters  of  grapes,  melons,  figs, 
and  dates.  An  incessant  and  most  noisy  crowd  pours  down  to 
the  ferry  upon  horses,  camels,  and  donkeys.     The  river  comes 


92  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

down  in  a  broad  and  glassy  current,  divided  into  two  channels 
by  the  island  of  Rhoda,  the  greenest  and  most  beautiful  in 
all  Egypt,  at  the  point  of  which  is  the  building  containing  the 
Nilometer,  for  ascertaining  the  rise  of  the  river.  Its  banks  are 
lined  by  large  djerms,  or  carrying  boats,  while  others  sweep 
down  with  their  blue  striped  latine  sails,  swelling  to  the  breeze 
like  the  expanded  wings  of  some  enormous  bird.  On  the  op- 
posite side,  above  the  chocolate-colored  alluvial  bank,  extends 
for  miles  a  rich  green  level,  brilliant  with  luxuriant  and  vari- 
egated crops,  dotted  with  palm  groves,  and  enlivened  by  Arab 
villages  and  minarets.  At  its  extremity,  in  the  strongest  con- 
trast, are  the  yellow  sands  of  the  Libyan  desert,  on  the  rising 
edge  of  which  are  ranged  the  eternal  pyramids.  In  the  time 
of  the  Romans,  when  Memphis  was  yet  a  great  city,  there  was 
a  bridge  of  boats  across  the  Nile  somewhere  near  this  spot ; 
but  now  the  communication  is  entirely  kept  up  by  means  of 
the  ferry.  We  squeezed  down  with  the  rest,  and  after  much 
contention  among  the  boatmen  for  the  prize  of  an  extra  piastre, 
were  huddled,  with  our  donkeys,  into  one  of  the  smaller  barks; 
and,  the  huge  sail  being  loosed,  in  a  few  moments  flew  across 
to  the  opposite  side,  and  mustered  our  donkeys  upon  the  raised 
agger  or  dyke.  Our  ride  across  the  plain  was  somewhat  cir- 
cuitous, on  account  of  the  rising  inundation,  which  had  not 
yet,  however,  entirely  cut  off  the  usual  communication.  We 
reached  the  edge  of  the  cultivated  land  as  the  sun  was  setting 
behind  the  pyramids  in  a  flush  of  glory,  shooting  beams  of  in- 
tensely red  light  across  the  irregular  sands.  Our  approach  was 
not  unperceived,  and  a  whole  posse  of  Arabs  soon  rushed  for- 
ward, not  to  offer,  but  to  force  upon  us  their  importunate,  an- 
noying services.  It  was  useless  to  drive  them  away ;  they 
returned  like  flies  to  the  attack ;  fortunately,  we  had  brought 


sphinx.  93 

with  us  a  well-armed  janissary,  who  knew  how  to  deal  with 
them,  and  whose  baton  was  pretty  freely  used  upon  their  heads 
and  shoulders.  When  we  reached  our  dormitory  among  ihe 
tombs,  the  Sheik  of  the  village  came  forward,  and  we  agreed 
with  him  for  the  services  of  two  Arabs  to  accompany  us  about 
the  neighborhood,  and  help  us  on  the  following  morning  to 
ascend  the  great  pyramid.  This  done,  we  sallied  forth  by 
the  light  of  the  rising  moon,  which  touched  the  tops  of  the 
billowy  waves  of  sand,  while  their  hollows  were  in  deep 
shadow.  A  majestic  apparition  suddenly  burst  upon  us — an 
enormous  head  and  shoulders,  whitened  by  the  moonlight, 
towered  above  the  extremity  of  one  of  the  sand  ravines  which 
lay  in  obscurity  below,  through  which,  far  beneath  the  chest 
of  the  statue,  dimly  peeped  out  the  traces  of  the  winged  globe 
upon  the  tablet  formerly  buried  beneath  its  paws.  The  fea- 
tures were  much  mutilated,  yet  an  expression  faintly  beamed 
through  them  of  bland  repose  and  immutable  serenity.  The 
pyramids  in  all  their  vastness  arose  behind.  No  assemblage 
of  objects  could  be  more  awful  or  imposing.  The  heaving 
sands  which  surge  up  and  down,  like  the  petrified  waves  of 
a  sea,  by  concealing  the  base  of  the  Sphinx,  and  burying  the 
temple  and  avenue  of  approach  which  formerly  led  up,  cause 
it  to  resemble  some  mysterious  preadamite  monarch,  or  one  of 
those  gigantic  genii  of  Arabian  fiction,  which  make  their  abode 
in  the  desolate  places  of  the  earth.  It  is  not  surprising,  there- 
fore, that  it  should,  as  Wilkinson  informs  us,  be  known  to  the 
superstitious  Arabs  of  the  present  day  by  the  name  of  Abool- 
hol,  or  '  the  father  of  terror'  or  immensity. 

"  In  its  state  of  pristine  perfection,  no  single  statue  in  Egypt 
could  have  vied  with  it.  When  by  the  labors  of  M.  Caviglia, 
the  lower  part  of  the  figure,  which  had  been  covered  up  by  the 


94  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

sand,  was  at  length  uncovered  for  a  while  by  laborious  and 
Sisyphus-like  toil,  (the  sand  slipping  down  almost  as  fast  as  it 
could  be  removed,)  it  presented  the  appearance  of  an  enor- 
mous couchant  Sphinx,  with  gigantic  paws,  between  which 
crouched,  as  if  for  protection,  a  miniature  temple  with  a  plat- 
form, and  flights  of  steps  for  approaching  it,  with  others  lead- 
ing down  from  the  plain  above.  A  crude  brick  wall  protected 
it  from  the  sand.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  conceive  a  more 
strange  or  imposing  spectacle  than  it  must  have  formerly  pre- 
sented to  the  worshipper,  advancing  as  he  did  along  this  ave- 
nue of  approach,  confined  between  the  sand- walls  of  the  ravine, 
and  looking  up  over  the  temple  to  the  colossal  head  of  the  tu- 
telary deity,  which  beamed  down  upon  him  from  an  altitude 
of  sixty  feet,  with  an  aspect  of  godlike  benignity.  On  un- 
covering the  paws,  accordingly,  many  inscriptions  were  found, 
records  of  the  admiration  of  Grecian  travellers,  and  of  careful 
restorations  by  the  Roman  emperors. 

"  The  whole  figure  is  cut  out  of  the  rock,  excepting  the 
fore  legs.  The  head  formerly  was  adorned  with  a  cap,  which 
has  been  removed,  but  portions  of  the  drapery  at  the  side  of 
the  face  remain.  Should  any  one  imagine  that  the  annexed 
representation  exaggerates  the  size,  it  may  be  stated  that  the 
circumference  of  the  head  around  the  forehead  is  given  by 
Pliny  as  one  hundred  and  two  feet.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  originated  by  Thotmes  III.,  and  the  names  of  his  son  and 
of  later  monarchs  are  inscribed  upon  it,  and  they  are  repre- 
sented as  offering  sacrifice  to  a  smaller  representation  of  it. 

"  From  contemplating  this  marvel  of  the  ancient  world,  we 
repaired  to  our  nocturnal  abode  in  a  tomb  scooped  out  of  a 
ledge  of  the  rock  on  which  the  great  pyramid  is  reared.  Hav- 
ing arranged  with  certain  Arabs  to  wake  us  up  in  order  to 


ttitiFK 


GREAT  PYRAMID.  95 

ascend  it  before  sunrise,  we  lay  down,  supped,  and  slept 
soundly  on  our  carpets. 

"  Beautiful  is  the  dawn  in  every  land ;  but  in  Egypt 
peculiarly  grateful,  from  its  refreshing  coolness  and  shadow, 
too  soon  exchanged  for  the  glare  and  heat  of  the  long  sum- 
mer's day.  The  Arabs  awoke  us  from  our  slumbers  in  the 
tomb,  and  in  a  few  moments  we  were  at  the  base  of  the  great 
pyramid. 

"  As  in  the  case  of  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  so  it  is  with  these 
marvels  of  human  creation,  it  is  not  until  you  stand  close  be- 
neath them  that  you  realize  their  stupendous  magnitude  and 
almost  overwhelming  grandeur.  In  looking  up  at  these  count- 
less layers  of  masonry/  each  of  them  more  than  breast  high, 
which  tower  upward  to  the  dizzy  apex,  imagination  readily 
exaggerates  the  difficulty  of  their  ascent ;  but  to  the  Arabs  the 
feat  is  as  familiar  as  going  up  stairs,  and  their  fearlessness  and 
dexterity  are  sufficient  to  assure  the  most  timorous.  It  is  at 
the  northeast  corner  that  we  began  the  ascent,  where  time 
and  accident  have  somewhat  wrought  the  massive  stonework 
into  cracks  and  fissures  ;  of  these  the  Fellahs  know  every  one, 
and  seizing  our  hands,  they  rapidly  hauled  us  upwards,  in- 
structing us  in  every  foot-hole ;  and  shouting,  laughing,  one 
pulling  us  from  above,  another  unceremoniously  propelling  us 
in  the  rear,  in  a  very  short  time  we  stood  midway  up  the  giant 
sides  of  the  monument,  where  we  paused  a  moment,  and  press- 
ing our  backs  against  the  stonework,  glanced,  half  fearfully, 
down  the  steep  descent  of  steps  upon  the  ocean  of  sand  at 
their  base,  and  the  boundless  horizon  expanding  in  front,  at 
the  same  time  peeping  upwards  to  the  sky-piercing  summit. 
Averting  our  eyes  from  the  dizzy  prospect,  wo  then  turned 
round,  and  more  and  more  excited  as  we  continued  the  clam- 


96  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

ber,  after  a  short  and  desperate  scramble,  arrived  panting  and 
palpitating  at  the  top.  Here  the  fall  of  a  few  layers  has  left 
a  small  platform  of  level  stonework,  cracked,  weather-beaten, 
and  corroded  by  some  thousand  years  of  time  and  tempests, 
and  inscribed  with  the  names  of  travellers  from  every  land. 

"  The  view  from  the  great  pyramid  is  wonderful  as  the 
structure  itself.  From  its  skyey  crest  we  look  down  upon  two 
regions  different  as  life  from  death.  Far  as  the  eye  could  see 
stretched  away  the  glorious  valley,  the  eternal  fertility  of  which 
has  outlived  the  empires  founded  on,  and  nourished  by.  its  pro- 
lific soil.  The  same  phenomenon  to  which  that  fertility  was 
owing  was  visibly  renewed  before  my  eyes  :  wide  portions  of 
the  valley  were  already  becoming  so  many  lagoons  ;  the  vil- 
lages and  palm  groves  were  isolated;  the  life-giving  waters 
poured  from  the  brimming  river  were  making  their  way  through 
various  channels,  to  saturate  and  enrich  the  plain.  And  every 
where  coming  up  to  its  green  edge,  and  hemming  it  in  with  an 
impassable  barrier,  are  the  yellow  sands  of  that  boundless 
Libyan  desert,  stretching  away  to  the  westward,  on  the  ele- 
vated edge  of  which  the  pyramids  are  placed.  From  the  sum- 
mit of  the  first  of  these  the  second  appears  in  all  its  grandeur ; 
the  tempest  has  lashed  up  the  sand  in  great  masses  against  its 
giant  sides  ;  at  its  foot  is  a  region  of  the  most  ancient  tombs 
and  pits  in  the  world,  the  resting-places  of  priests  and  nobles 
clustered  round  their  monarch  ;  their  yawning  orifices,  like  the 
dens  of  wild  animals,  honeycomb  the  broken  sand.  The 
Sphinx  from  hence  appears  magnificent ;  the  neighboring 
group  of  palm-trees  dwindles  to  a  tiny  speck. 

"  It  was  a  luxury  to  look  up  into  the  immense  arch  of  the 
sky,  to  which  we  seemed  nearer  than  to  the  earth,  and  here  of 
such  pure  unclouded  transparency — we  might  penetrate  into 


GREAT  PYRAMID.  97 

the  depths  of  azure  space.  Over  the  eastward  mountains,  on 
the  other  side  the  Nile,  the  dawn  was  shooting  upwards  its 
glorious  radiance  through  the  vast  concave,  a  few  thin  bars  of 
lustrous  crimson  of  almost  insufferable  brilliancy  appeared, 
and  the  sun  rose  like  a  ball  of  intense  fire.  As  it  clomb  the 
sky  the  landscape  kindled  into  life  ;  the  distant  Nile,  and  the 
waters  of  the  inundation,  flushed  with  the  growing  splendor. 
The  smoke  curled  up  from  the  Arab  villages,  awaking  with  all 
their  noises  ;  the  barking  of  dogs,  the  shrill  babble  of  Fellahs, 
and  the  lowing  of  cattle,  faintly  ascended  to  our  airy  post. 
But  the  only  sound  that  arose  from  the  immense  expanse  of 
the  Libyan  desert,  was  the  wailing  of  the  winds',  as  they  con- 
tend over  its  dead  surface,  and  pile  it  up  into  shapeless  swells 
and  ridges,  awakening  a  wild  and  mournful  music.  From  the 
second  pyramid  and  that  of  Mycerinus  were  cast,  by  the  rising 
sun,  majestic  shadows  which  seemed  to  stretch  half  across  the 
blanched  and  desolate  expanse,  a  sublime  effect  which  can  be 
but  faintly  imagined  by  those  who  have  not  witnessed  it. 

"  There  is  an  immensity  in  all  the  elements  of  this  scene, 
and  in  the  ideas  they  excite  in  the  mind.  The  works  of  man 
seem  in  their  magnitude  and  eternal  durability  to  contend,  as 
it  were,  with  those  of  nature.  Every  thing  is  so  strange,  so 
vast,  so  suggestive  of  a  host  of  wonderful  associations,  that 
there  is,  perhaps,  no  other  spot  on  earth  where  the  mind  is 
more  exalted  and  awed.  More  fortunate  than  many  others, 
owing  to  our  arrangements,  we  were  quite  undisturbed  in  this 
contemplation.  Our  two  Fellahs  crouched  down  half  asleep 
on  the  layers  of  stone  below  us ;  and  a  young  Arab  girl,  who 
had  climbed  after  us  with  a  porous  water-bottle  in  the  hope  of 
gleaning  a  few  paras,  sat  immovable  as  a  stone  upon  the  top- 
7 


98  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

most  ledge,  cutting  the  desert  horizon  with  her  lithe  and  grace- 
ful form. 

"  How  many  illustrious  travellers  in  all  ages  have  sat  and 
gazed  upon  the  scene  around  !  and  how  endless  are  the  specu- 
lations in  which  they  have  indulged  !  '  The  epochs,  the 
builders,  and  the  objects  of  the  pyramids,'  says  Gliddon,  '  had, 
for  two  thousand  years,  been  dreams,  fallacies,  or  mysteries.' 
To  begin  at  the  beginning,  some  have  supposed  them  to  be 
antediluvian  ;  others,  that  they  were  built  by  the  children  of 
Noah  to  escape  from  a  second  flood, — by  Nimrod,  by  the  Pali  of 
Hindostan,  and  even  the  ancient  Irish.  It  was  a  favorite  theory 
until  very  lately,  that  they  were  the  work  of  the  captive  Israel- 
ites. The  Arabians  attributed  them  to  the  Jins  or  Genii ; 
others,  to  a  race  of  Titans.  Some  have  supposed  them  to  have 
been  the  granaries  built  by  Joseph ;  others,  intended  for  his 
tomb,  or  those  of  the  Pharaoh  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea,  or  of 
the  bull  Apis.  Yeates  thinks  they  soon  followed  the  Tower 
of  Babel,  and  both  had  the  same  common  design ;  while, 
according  to  others,  they  were  built  with  the  spoils  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  and  the  riches  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  They 
have  been  regarded  as  temples  of  Venus,  as  reservoirs  for  puri- 
fying the  waters  of  the  Nile,  as  erected  for  astronomical  or 
mathematical  purposes,  or  intended  to  protect  the  valley  of  the 
Nile  from  the  encroachments  of  the  sands  of  the  desert  (this 
notable  theory,  too,  is  quite  recent)  ;  in  short,  for  every  con- 
ceivable and  inconceivable  purpose  that  could  be  imagined  by 
superstitious  awe,  by  erudition  groping  without  data  in  the 
dark,  or  reasoning  upon  the  scanty  and  suspicious  evidence  of 
Grecian  writers.  At  length,  after  a  silence  of  thousands  of 
years,  the  discoveries  of  Champollion  have  enabled  the  monu- 
ments to  tell  their  own  tale  ;  their  mystery  has  been,  in  great 


THE  PYRAMIDS.  99 

measure,  unravelled,  arid  the  names  of  their  founders  ascer- 
tained. The  explorations  of  Colonel  Vyse,  Perring,  and  re- 
cently of  Lepsius,  have  brought  to  light  the  remains  of  no 
less  than  sixty-nine  pyramids,  extending  in  a  line  from  Abou- 
roash  to  Dashoor.  These,  by  the  discovery  of  the  names  of 
their  founders,  are  proved  to  have  been  a  succession  of  royal 
mausolea,  forming  the  most  sublime  Necropolis  in  the  world. 
The  size  of  each  different  pyramid  is  supposed  to  bear  relation 
to  the  length  of  the  reign  of  its  builder,  being  commenced  with 
the  delving  of  a  tomb  in  the  rock  for  him  at  his  accession,  over 
which  a  fresh  layer  of  stones  was  added  every  year  until  his 
decease,  when  the  monument  was  finished  and  closed  up. 
Taking  the  number  of  these  Memphite  sovereigns  and  the 
average  length  of  their  reigns,  the  gradual  construction  of  the 
pyramids  would  therefore,  it  is  presumed,  extend  over  a  period, 
in  round  numbers,  of  some  sixteen  hundred  years  !  Imagina- 
tion is  left  to  conceive  the  antecedent  period  required  for  the 
slow  formation  of  the  alluvial  valley  of  the  Nile  until  it  be- 
came fit  for  human  habitation,  whether  it  was  first  peopled  by 
an  indigenous  race,  or  by  an  Asiatic  immigration,  already 
bringing  with  them  from  their  Asiatic  birth-place  the  elements 
of  civilization,  or  whether  they  grew  up  on  the  spot,  and  the 
long,  long  ages  that  might  have  elapsed,  and  the  progress  that 
must  have  been  made,  before  monuments  so  wonderful  could 
have  been  erected. 

"  Such  is  the  latest  theory,  we  believe,  of  the  construction 
and  import  of  the  pyramids.  At  the  risk,  however,  of  irreve- 
rence towards  the  learned  authorities  by  whom  it  is  pro- 
pounded, we  would  remark,  that  it  appears  inconsistent  with 
the  construction  of  the  great  pyramid  of  Cheops,  since  the 
existence  of  a  series  of  interior  passages  and  chambers,  and 


100  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

even  of  air  passages  communicating  with  the  exterior,  seems 
to  argue  a  regular  design  for  the  construction  of  the  entire 
monument.  We  are  utterly  at  a  loss  to  conceive  how  their 
interior  passages  and  chambers  could  have  been  formed  gra- 
dually, as  upon  this  theory  they  must  have  been,  during  the 
accumulation  of  a  mass  of  masonry,  the  ultimate  extent  of 
which  depended  on  the  contingency  of  the  monarch's  life. 
And  if  this  objection  be  fatal  to  the  theory,  what  becomes  of 
the  very  pretty  system  of  chronology  erected  upon  it  ?  To  be 
sure,  the  mere  existence  of  such  a  number  of  these  monuments, 
most  probably  erected  successively  on  a  given  spot,  seems  of 
itself  to  argue  an  immense  antiquity ;  but,  as  Mr.  Gliddon 
well  remarks,  '  the  gross  amount  of  cartouches  (or  names  of 
sovereigns)  must  be  known  before  valid  opinions  can  be  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  era  of  Menes' — still  oscillating  between  the 
86th  and  58th  century  b.  c. — if  Menes  can  indeed  be  proved 
ever  to  have  had  any  real  existence." 

It  is  difficult,  by  a  simple  statement  of  dimensions  in  feet 
and  inches  to  convey  to  the  general  reader,  unaccustomed  to 
measure  distances  with  the  eye,  an  adequate  idea  of  the  size 
of  objects.  A  resort  to  comparison  with  some  known  object 
is  therefore  more  satisfactory  ;  and  the  recent  very  interesting 
work  on  the  East,  by  our  countryman,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Spencer, 
furnishes  us  with  the  following  : 

"  For  the  benefit  of  Londoners,  it  has  been  said  that  the 
great  pyramid  covers  the  same  space  as  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields 
(=  about  550,000  square  feet),  and  is  more  than  sixty  feet 
higher  than  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  which  is  sufficiently  near  to 
serve  for  a  comparison.  You,  as  a  New-Yorker,  will,  perhaps, 
be  better  able  to  comprehend  the  vast  size  and  extent  of  the 
great  pyramid  by  comparing  it  with  some  well-known  objects 


MEMPHIS.  101 

in  our  metropolis.  Suppose,  then,  that  you  are  standing  by 
the  northwest  corner  of  the  Park ;  you  walk  down  Broadway 
till  you  come  to  the  lower  side  of  Park  Place  ;  thence  across 
in  a  straight  line,  just  leaving  out  the  fountain,  to  Chatham- 
street,  and  continuing  until  you  take  in  the  American  Bible 
House,  the  range  of  buildings  and  hotels,  &c,  near  by ;  thence 
turning  northwardly  in  a  straight  line  to  the  corner  of  Cham- 
bers-street and  the  Park,  on  Centre-street ;  and  thence  to  the 
point  of  starting — a  space  of  about  twelve  acres  in  extent.  As 
you  stand  here,  just  think  of  all  this  being  one  solid  mass  of 
stone,  as  a  base  for  a  pyramid !  all  the  public  buildings,  the 
City  Hall,  offices,  walks,  trees,  and  so  on,  covered  entirely  ! 
Next  take  a  look  at  St.  Paul's,  with  its  spire  piercing  the 
clouds,  and  imagine,  if  you  can,  that  from  this  vast  stony 
basis,  which  you  see  before  you,  rises  aloft  a  mighty  structure, 
considerably  more  than  twice  as  high  as  that  neighboring 
spire."* 

As  to  Memphis,  now  known  as  Mitraheny,  but  little  is  left. 
"  Large  mounds  of  rubbish,  a  colossal  statue  sunk  deep  in  the 
ground  [Remeses  II.],  and  a  few  fragments  of  granite,  are  all 
that  remain,"  says  Dr.  Robinson.  The  reason  why  Memphis 
is  so  utterly  destroyed,  while  the  temples  at  Thebes  and  else- 
where still  stand  to  invite  attention,  is  not  to  be  found  in  dif- 
ference of  climate,  or  other  natural  causes.  The  destruction 
is  the  work  of  man.  An  Arab  city  was  built  at  Fostat,  or  Old 
Cairo ;  others  have  been  since  reared  in  the  same  vicinity. 

*  It  is  not  possible  by  mere  description  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  the  interior 
of  the  great  pyramid.  A  model  must  be  seen  ;  and  an  accurate  one  is  open  to 
inspection  in  the  admirable  Egyptian  collection  of  Mr.  Gliddon,  which,  with  his 
beautiful  panorama  of  the  Nile,  furnish,  probably,  as  correct  information  concern- 
ing Egypt  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  without  personal  observation  of  the  country. 


102  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Memphis  furnished  the  materials,  else  might  we  now  have 
gazed  with  as  much  interest  on  Memphis  as  on  Karnac  or 
Luxor. 

According  to  the  accounts  of  travellers,  much  care  is  neces- 
sary in  selecting,  for  a  voyage  on  the  river,  both  the  boat  and 
its  reis,  or  commander  ;  and  the  voyager  supplies  himself  also 
with  food  and  all  other  articles  necessary  to  his  comfort.  Sup- 
posing these  preliminaries  arranged  to  his  satisfaction,  and  that 
he  is  fairly  embarked,  he  proceeds  by  the  aid  of  the  wind, 
when  favorable,  and  when  otherwise  his  progress  is  made,  as 
in  a  canal  boat,  by  towing,  or  "  tracking,"  the  crew  being 
substituted  for  horses. 

The  first  point  of  importance  that  is  reached  on  the  up- 
ward voyage  is  the  town  of  Beni  S'ouef,  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  river.  This  is  the  capital  of  a  province,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  a  bey.  It  is  from  this  point  that  the  road  commences 
which  leads  to  the  Fyoom,  as  it  is  called,  and  to  Lake  Moeris. 
The  district  of  the  Fyoom  is,  perhaps,  the  most  fertile  in  Egypt, 
and  has  always  been  celebrated  for  its  roses.  On  the  west  of 
Lake  Mceris,  according  to  Pliny,  was  the  Labyrinth.  There 
are  ruinous  fragments  on  that  side  of  the  lake  ;  but  at  this  day 
no  vestige  of  a  building.  The  pyramid  of  Howara  marks 
the  site  of  the  Labyrinth.  Very  little  of  this  wonder  of  Egypt 
is  above  ground  ;  but  Dr.  Lepsius,  it  is  said,  has  recently  exca- 
vated it,  and  traced  out  its  plan.  Of  Lake  Moeris,  Herodotus 
furnishes  an  account,  in  which  he  represents  it  as  being  en- 
tirely executed  by  the  hand  of  man ;  and,  in  proof  of  it,  he 
states  that  in  the  middle  of  the  lake  there  were  in  his  day  two 
pyramids,  each  216  feet  above,  and  as  many  below,  the  surface 
of  the  water,  the  apex  of  each  being  surmounted  with  a  colossus. 
Denon  ridiculed  the  idea  of  an  artificial  lake,  277  miles  in  cir- 


BENI-HASSAN.  103 

cumference,  and  thirty-six  fathoms  deep.  In  modem  times, 
however,  M.  Linant  has  discovered  what  he  considers  genu- 
ine traces  of  the  reservoir  having  been  artificial,  and  that  it 
was  made  to  retain  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  after  the  fall  of  an 
inundation.  At  Biahmoo,  also,  he  has  found  some  curious 
ruins,  which,  it  is  conjectured,  are  probably  those  of  the  two 
pyramids  mentioned  by  Herodotus.  There  is,  however,  a 
natural  lake  about  thirty-five  miles  long  and  seven  broad, 
called  Birket  el  Kom,  which  has  heretofore  been  regarded  as 
the  Lake  Moeris.  Herodotus  tells  us  there  was  a  chain  of 
Lakes  in  that  region,  and  this,  probably,  was  one  of  them. 

Leaving  Beni  S'ouef,  the  traveller  comes  next  upon  Minieh, 
"decidedly  the  prettiest  looking  town  upon  the  Nile,"  says 
one  of  our  modern  books  of  travel ;  but  affording  nothing  to 
interest  the  archaeologist.  The  place  is  about  140  miles  distant 
from  Cairo. 

Beni-Hassan.  This  is  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river,  and 
here  is  much  worthy  of  study ;  for  here  are  the  celebrated 
tombs  which  have  furnished  such  abundant  and  satisfactory 
illustrations  of  the  domestic  manners  and  employments  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians.  These  tombs  are  situated  high  on  the 
side  of  the  hills,  and  can  be  reached  only  by  a  toilsome  walk. 
There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  architecture  of  some  of  these 
tombs  that  has  been  noticed,  but.  as  it  is  believed,  not  ex- 
plained. They  are  confessedly  of  high  antiquity,  and,  in  their 
porticoes,  approach  very  near  the  Grecian  Doric.  In  fact,  it 
is  difficult  to  resist  the  belief  that  here  is  the  origin  of  that 
order  of  architecture.  The  interior  of  one  of  these  tombs  has 
a  central  avenue  supported  by  Doric  columns,  with  a  low 
carved  ceiling,  which  Sir  Gardiner  Wilkinson  suggests  may 
have  been  copied  from  a  stone  arch.     It  is  from  the  represen- 


104  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

tations  on  the  walls  of  these  tombs  that  many  of  our  illustra- 
tions are  taken.     Bartlett  thus  describes  them  : 

"  The  walls  having  been  prepared,  and  divided  by  lines  into 
different  compartments,  were  covered  with  an  elaborate  series 
of  representations,  which  set  before  us  in  a  most  lively  style, 
and  with  surprising  distinctness,  the  domestic  manners  of  that 
remote  period — they  are  indeed  a  mine  to  the  antiquary.  This 
is  the  first  time  that  I  had  seen  this  interesting  peculiarity  of 
Egyptian  antiquities,  and  I  was  proportionally  astonished  and 
delighted.  The  colors,  considering  the  antiquity  of  the 
tomb,  are  wonderfully  preserved.  In  the  style  of  execution 
there  is  no  great  display  of  art,  but  the  variety  of  the  paint- 
ings is  inexhaustible.  They  embrace  all  the  processes  of 
agriculture  from  sowing  to  harvest,  with  fowling,  fishing,  and 
hunting  scenes,  some  of  the  latter  remarkable  for  their  spirit ; 
the  different  trades  and  occupations,  and  even  amusements, 
dancing,  wrestling,  playing  at  draughts  and  ball,  and  the  mode 
of  administering  punishment  by  the  same  process  as  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  namely,  the  bastinado.  Here  yon  see,  as  on  the  bank 
of  the  Nile  at  the  present  day,  peasants  proceeding  to  market, 
bearing  their  burdens,  and  driving  their  cattle  before  them, 
while  the  different  craft  on  the  river  are  depicted  with  equal 
attention.  They  have  the  appearance  of  minute  and  labo- 
riously accurate  delineations.  It  seems  as  though  nothing  per- 
taining to  every-day  life  was  forgotten  ;  a  lively  and  sometimes 
half-ludicrous  vein  runs  through  the  whole  series,  which,  even 
to  a  hasty  visitor,  rise  up  with  marvellous  familiarity  and  dis- 
tinctness, while  the  antiquary  is  enabled  by  a  careful  analysis 
to  fill  up  a  very  complete  picture  of  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  In  the  tomb  represented,  there  is 
on  the  top  of  the  left-hand  wall  a  procession  of  figures  which 


TOMBS  AT  BENI-HASSAN.  105 

has  attracted  much  attention.  The  tomb  is  of  the  early  time 
of  Osirtasen  I.,  with  whom  Joseph  is  supposed  to  have  been 
contemporary,  and  it  has  been  sometimes  imagined  that  this 
band  of  strangers  might  be  the  brethren  of  the  patriarch.  The 
group  will  be  gazed  on  with  great  interest,  though  Wilkinson 
is  unable  to  admit  the  above  supposition,  as,  though  obviously 
orientals,  their  number  does  not  agree  with  that  given  in  the 
Bible ;  they  are,  besides,  represented  as  captives,  and  the  name 
of  the  owner  of  the  tomb,  who  was  governor  of  this  part  of  the 
country,  is  also  totally  different.*  Besides  the  tombs,  which  so 
strongly  resemble  Doric  porticoes,  there  are  others  which  dis- 
play the  early  style  of  Egyptian  architecture,  formed  upon  the 
imitation  of  the  lotus  and  papyrus,  which  is  carried  out  more 
fully  in  the  temples." 

The  tombs  are  thirty-one  in  number,  but  it  is  said  that  not 
more  than  six  or  eight  are  particularly  interesting.  Some  of 
them  are  very  spacious,  being  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  length, 
from  twenty  to  thirty-five  in  height,  and  about  twenty-five  feet 
wide.     In  most,  the  architecture  is  strictly  Egyptian. 

Passing  onward  from  Beni  Hassan,  before  reaching  Man- 
falout,  the  traveller  passes  the  stupendous  precipices  on  the 
Arabian  side,  known  as  Djebel  Abou-fodde.  They  overhang 
the  boat  as  it  passes,  and  far  up  among  the  clefts  are  the  grot- 
toes and  caverns  once  occupied  by  the  ascetics  of  Egypt.  Here, 
it  is  said,  Athanasius  found  a  shelter  in  the  vicissitudes  which 
marked  his  troubled  life.  Here  the  voyager  is  subjected 
to  those  sudden  gusts  of  wind,  which  rushing  down  through 
the  ravines  from  the  high  eastern  desert,  require  all  the  skill, 
courage,  and  experience  of  Nile  boatmen  to  save  the  craft. 

*  A  representation  of  this  is  on  a  future  page. 


106  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Escaping  from  this  dangerous  locality,  the  traveller  soon  ap- 
proaches Manfalout. 

This  is  a  town  which  is  rapidly  declining  in  importance. 
It  stands  on  a  high  bank,  or  "  bluff,"  as  it  would  be  called  on 
our  western  rivers,  against  which  the  current  impinges  with 
such  force  that  it  has  carried  away  a  large  portion,  and  threat- 
ens to  remove  the  whole.  Still  the  approach  to  it  furnishes  a 
fine  scene.  "  The  western  banks  (says  a  traveller)  present  a 
rich  carpet  of  the  'bersim'  or  clover,  cotton,  hemp,  wheat, 
Indian  corn,  and  sugar-cane :  the  river  is  bold,  and  rolls  its 
waters  at  the  bases  of  projecting  rocks ;  whilst  in  other  parts, 
the  mountains  stretch  far  away  into  the  depths  of  the  Arabian 
wilderness,  varying  in  form,  and  resembling  pinnacles,  terraces 
and  turrets,  picturesque  ruins,  and  extensive  forts."  Opposite 
to  Manfalout,  in  the  mountains,  are  the  celebrated  crocodile 
mummy  cases,  of  which  travellers  write. 

Gliding  by  the  pretty  town  of  Siout,  with  its  handsome 
mosques  and  minarets  and  pleasant  environs,  but  with  no 
stronger  claim  to  notice  than  that  it  is  the  capital  of  Upper 
Egypt ;  the  traveller  next  reaches  Girgeh,  a  few  miles  back  of 
which  are  the  ruins  of  Abydus  or  This,  where  was  found  the 
tablet  represented  on  our  twenty-fifth  page.  Here  are  the 
remains  of  two  temples,  partly  buried  in  sand  and  rubbish. 
These  were  built  by  Osirei,  and  his  son,  Rameses  the  Great. 

The  temple  of  Dendera  (Tentyris)  next  invites  the  travel- 
ler's notice.  The  reader  will  remember  that  we  have  alluded 
to  this  on  a  previous  page  (48)  in  connection  with  the  pre- 
tended discovery  of  its  extreme  age  as  demonstrated  by  its 
zodiac  ;  and  it  will  not  be  forgotten  how  quietly  the  pretended 
discovery  was  disposed  of  by  Champollion's  reading  on  the 
zodiac  the  name  of  Augustus  Caesar. 


DENDERA.  107 

Bartlett  thus  describes  the  temple : 

"The  first  opening  view  entirely  disappointed  me,  nor 
could  I  help  contrasting  the  effect  of  Greek  and  Roman  ruins 
— of  the  temples  of  Athens,  and  Girgenti,  and  Baalbec,  their 
ranges  of  columns  and  half-ruined  porticoes,  rising  in  pictur- 
esque disorder  against  the  sky,  with  the  heavy  square  walls 
and  flat  roof  of  the  Egyptian  temple,  cutting  into  a  back- 
ground of  yellow  sand.  Nor  did  a  nearer  approach  altogether 
remove  this  unfavorable  impression  ;  the  facade,  though  vast, 
seemed  heavy  and  half  barbarous,  and  inspired  none  of  that 
mingled  awe  and  delight  which  I  had  anticipated.  On  enter- 
ing, however,  one  cannot  fail  to  experience  the  peculiar  emo- 
tions produced  by  Egyptian  architecture,  a  feeling  of  gloomy 
sublimity  which  awes  rather  than  elevates,  and  which  to  the 
ordinary  spectator  is  greatly  heightened  by  the  sculptures  and 
hieroglyphics  which  every  where  cover  the  walls,  in  mute 
mysterious  meaning,  leading  back  our  ideas  to  the  recondite 
religious  ideas  which  they  symbolize,  and  inspiring  a  deep 
and  almost  trembling  curiosity  as  to  the  rites  which  were  cele- 
brated in  the  recesses  of  these  soul-subduing  temples.  The 
flat  roof  in  its  dusky  obscurity,  and  the  grand  portal  of  simple 
and  heavy  proportion,  with  the  inner  chambers  receding  into 
utter  darkness,  add  to  the  effect  of  this  first  impression. 

"  The  columns  of  the  portico,  of  which  there  are  twenty- 
four,  are  peculiar  ;  at  least  there  is  no  other  instance  of  them 
on  this  scale.  Capitals,  whose  forms  and  details  are  generally 
borrowed  from  the  lotus  and  palm,  and  other  plants  and  flow- 
ers, consist  here  of  the  head  of  the  goddess  Athor,  the  Venus  of 
the  Egyptians,  repeated  fourfold,  with  a  superincumbent  ad- 
dition which  gives  a  heavy  and  shapeless  character  to  the 
entire   column.     Of  the   faces   scarcely  one   remains  entire, 


108  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

which  very  much  impairs  the  effect  doubtless  intended  to  be 
produced  by  the  universal  presence  of  the  face,  characterized, 
as  Sir  F.  Henniker  remarks,  by  a  '  bewitching  half  modesty,' 
which  every  where  beamed  upon  the  intoxicated  worshipper 
of  the  genial  power. 

"  The  great  portico,  comparatively  a  very  modern  specimen 
of  Egyptian  art,  was  added  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  l  On  its 
ceiling,'  observes  Mr.  Sharpe,  '  is  the  well-known  zodiac,  which 
our  antiquaries  once  thought  was  of  a  great  antiquity,  but  the 
sign  of  the  Scales  in  the  zodiac  might  alone  have  taught  them 
that  it  could  not  be  older  than  the  reign  of  Augustus,  who 
gave  that  name  to  the  group  of  stars  which  before  formed  the 
spreading  claws  of  the  scorpion.  We  cannot  but  admire  the 
zeal  of  the  Egyptians  by  whom  this  work  was  then  finished. 
They  were  treated  as  slaves  by  their  Greek  fellow-country- 
men ;  they,  the  fallen  descendants  of  the  conquering  kings  of 
Thebes,  had  every  third  year  their  houses  ransacked  in  search 
of  arms :  the  Romans  only  drained  the  province  of  its  wealth, 
and  the  temple  had  perhaps  never  been  heard  of  by  the  empe- 
ror, who  could  have  been  little  aware  that  the  most  lasting 
monument  of  his  reign  was  being  raised  in  the  distant  province 
of  Egypt.  We  cannot  but  admire  a  people,  who,  denying 
themselves  all  beyond  the  coarsest  food  and  clothing  as  luxu- 
ries, thought  a  noble  massive  temple  for  the  worship  of  the 
gods  one  of  the  first  necessaries  of  life.' 

"  Briefly  to  describe  the  interior  arrangements  of  the  tem- 
ple, we  quote  from  Wilkinson. 

"  To  the  great  portico  succeeds  a  hall  of  six  columns  with 
three  rooms  on  either  side :  then  a  central  chamber,  commu- 
nicating on  one  side  with  two  small  rooms,  and  on  the  other 
with  a  staircase.     This  is  followed  by  another  similar  cham- 


KENEH— CROCODILES.  109 

ber,  (with  two  rooms  on  the  west  and  one  on  the  east  side,) 
immediately  before  the  isolated  sanctuary,  which  has  a  pas- 
sage leading  round  it,  and  communicating  with  three  rooms  on 
either  side.  The  total  length  of  the  temple  is  93  paces,  (or 
about  220  feet,)  by  41,  or  across  the  portico  50. 

"  Advancing  through  the  gloom  of  the  succeeding  hall,  we 
prepared  to  explore  these  smaller  chambers  and  passages. 
Oppressed  by  a  close  foul  odor,  and  not  without  apprehension 
of  treading  on  snakes  and  scorpions  concealed  in  the  loose 
dust,  we  lighted  our  candles  and  began  cautiously  to  descend  ; 
the  bats,  startled  by  the  glare,  roused  from  their  obscure  cran- 
nies, and  madly  flitting  to  and  fro,  with  their  slight  curdling 
cry  and  the  whizzing  of  their  filthy  wings,  threatened  to  extin- 
guish our  lights,  and  dash  their  obscene  bodies  full  into  our 
averted  faces, — an  idea  which  even  now  inspires  a  shudder  of 
disgust.  Such  was  our  welcome  into  these  narrow  dusky  pas- 
sages, once  thronged  with  the  votaries  of  a  voluptuous  and 
debasing  superstition.  Screening  as  well  as  might  be  our  eyes 
from  these  attacks,  we  traced  out  with  our  candles  the  elabo- 
rate sculptures  with  which  the  walls  are  every  where  profusely 
covered  throughout  these  numerous  smaller  rooms,  all  minis- 
tering to  the  impression  designed  to  be  produced  upon  the 
spectator." 

At  Keneh,  the  next  place  reached,  there  is  nothing  to  at- 
tract, and  it  is  chiefly  to  be  noticed  for  its  gross  immorality, 
and  for  being  opposite  to  the  point  on  the  river  from  which  the 
traveller  diverges  to  cross  over  to  the  Red  Sea  (Cosseir). 

A  voyage  on  the  Nile  would  be  imperfect  should  no  men- 
tion be  made  of  the  crocodile. 

"  The  following  particulars  are  derived  from  Messrs.  Bono- 
mi  and  Sharpe.     '  Crocodiles  were  formerly  found  much  far- 


HO  'EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

ther  down  the  river  than  at  present,  as  the  hunting  them  is 
represented  on  the  tombs  of  Memphis  ;  at  the  present  day  they 
are  not  met  with  lower  than  about  Siout.  They  are  seen  in 
groups  of  three  or  four,  basking  upon  the  sunny  shoals,  and 
take  to  the  river  when  startled  at  the  approach  of  a  boat. 
There  is  an  old  story  connected  with  them  so  curious,  that  we 
might  well  have  been  justified  in  doubting  its  truth,  but  for 
the  attestations  of  numerous  travellers.  It  is,  that  a  small  bird, 
called  from  its  cry  the  '  Sic-sac,'  hovers  about  this  ungainly 
monster,  and  warns  him  of  the  approach  of  danger  by  dashing 
to  and  fro  against  his  head,  and  uttering  its  shrill  peculiar 
note,  upon  which  the  crocodile  seeks  safety  under  water.  This 
was  lately  described  by  the  Hon.  Mr.  Curzon,  who  himself 
witnessed  it.  It  is  very  rarely  that  they  are  known  to  attack 
any  one.  In  some  parts  of  Egypt  the  crocodile  is  worshipped 
as  a  god ;  in  others,  killed  and  eaten  as  a  public  enemy.  Ju- 
venal, who  held  some  military  post  in  the  province,  found 
much  amusement  in  satirizing  the  superstitions  of  Egypt. 
But,  adds  Mr.  Sharpe,  he  sometimes  takes  a  poet's  liberty,  and 
when  he  tells  us  that  man's  was  the  only  flesh  that  they  ate 
without  sinning,  we  are  not  to  believe  him  to  the  letter.  He 
gives  a  lively  picture  of  a  fight  which  he  saw  between  the 
citizens  of  the  two  towns  of  Ombos  and  Tentyra,  who  had  a 
long  standing  quarrel  about  their  gods.  At  Ombos  they  wor- 
shipped the  crocodile  and  the  crocodile-headed  god  Savak, 
while  at  Tentyra  they  worshipped  the  goddess  Athor,  and 
were  celebrated  for  their  skill  in  catching  and  killing  croco- 
diles. So,  taking  an  advantage  of  a  feast  or  holiday,  as  the 
people  of  Modena  and  Bologna  did  in  the  days  of  Tassoni, 
they  marched  out  for  a  fight.  The  men  of  Ombos  were  beaten 
and  put  to  flight,  but  one  of  them  stumbling  as  he  ran  away, 


CROCODILES.  1X1 

was  caught  and  torn  to  pieces,  and,  as  Juvenal  adds,  eaten  by 
the  men  of  Tentyra.' " 

To  this  Mr.  Bartlett  adds : 

"  Crocodiles  were  also  taken  and  tamed  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, who  made  pets  of  them,  decorating  them  with  ear-rings 
and  bracelets,  and  pampering  them  with  roast  meat  and  wine. 
Amid  the  variety  of  animals  brought  from  the  subjugated 
provinces  to  Rome,  to  be  exhibited  and  destroyed  in  the  am- 
phitheatre, was  also,  as  Strabo  informs  us,  the  crocodile,  thirty- 
six  being  introduced  at  once  for  that  purpose  by  Augustus, 
who  were  killed  by  the  gladiators,  and  there  is  mention  also 
of  an  artificial  lake  at  Rome  in  which  tame  ones  were  exhibit- 
ed. In  the  British  Museum  is  a  statue  of  a  man  of  Dendera 
performing  feats  of  agility  on  a  crocodile's  back.  The  aperture 
or  pupil  of  the  eye  contracts  into  a  narrow  perpendicular  line, 
and  the  Arabs  relate  that  during  the  season  of  the  inundation, 
when  the  water  of  the  Nile  is  considerably  .darkened  by  the 
quantity  of  clay  held  in  solution,  it  is  totally  blind,  confirming 
in  some  measure  the  statement  of  Herodotus." 

We  have  heard  a  similar  story  told  at  the  South  of  the  pe- 
riodical blindness  of  the  alligator  of  that  region.  There  was, 
however,  no  attempt  to  assign  a  cause  for  it. 

And  now  the  voyager  comes  upon  Thebes.  The  difficulty 
here  is,  amid  the  vast  mass  of  materials,  so  to  select  as  to  con- 
vey to  the  reader  a  distinct  impression  of  these  magnificent 
ruins.  It  would  occupy  more  space  than  we  can  afford  to 
trace  the  history  of  Thebes  from  its  origin,  through  its  day  of 
splendor,  down  to  its  period  of  decay.  The  traveller  who,  at 
this  day,  stands  amid  its  remains,  will  feel  that  "  the  wide 
acres  of  Theban  ruins  prove  alike  the  greatness  of  the  city, 
and  the  force  with  which  it  was  overthrown." 


112  EGYPT  AND'  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

"  The  habitations  of  the  city  were  swept  away,  but  the 
temples,  miles  apart,  form  the  nuclei  of  different  scattered  ham- 
lets, whose  inhabitants  till  the  plain,  once  covered  with  the 
living  millions  of  the  ancient  city.  The  Christians  under 
the  Greek  emperors  raised  their  puny  structures  amidst  the 
colossal  courts  of  Medeenet  Habou,  but  fled  on  the  conquest 
of  the  Arabs,  whose  degenerate  succesaors  make  their  habita- 
tion amidst  the  tombs  of  Gornou,  and  gain  a  precarious  sub- 
sistence by  rifling  their  contents,  or  dragging  from  their  reposi- 
tories the  mummied  remains  of  their  tenants. 

"  But  the  ruined  temples  still  stand  to  call  forth  the  won- 
der of  the  traveller.  They  have  seen  the  whole  portion  of  time 
of  which  history  keeps  the  reckoning  roll  before  them ;  they 
have  seen  kingdoms  and  nations  rise  and  fall — the  Babylo- 
nians, the  .Jews,  the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans. 
They  have  seen  the  childhood  of  all  that  we  call  ancient,  and 
they  still  seem  likely  to  stand,  to  tell  their  tale  to  those  who 
will  hereafter  call  us  the  ancients." 

Luxor,  Karnac,  Medinet  Habou — separated  now — these 
were  all  once  Thebes.  But  let  an  eye-witness  describe  the 
scene. 

"  On  the  verge  of  this  region,  among  the  burning  sands, 
stand  conspicuous  on  the  left  the  ruins  of  the  Memnonium, 
one  of  the  most  extensive  and  elegant  of  the  temples,  but  hence 
appearing  an  indistinct  mass  of  columns  and  propylaea.  To 
the  left,  following  the  edge  of  the  cultivated  soil,  lies  the  path 
to  the  Assaseef,  and  some  portions  of  the  tombs  of  which 
appear.  On  the  left  are  seen  the  temple  and  village  of 
Gornou. 

"  To  the  right,  the  path  from  the  Memnonium  conducts  to 
the  extensive  mounds  and  ruins  of  Medeenet  Habou,  a 


b 


THEBES.  113 

world  in  itself;  and  behind  is  the  gloomy  Birket  Habou,  or 
lake  of  Habou,  formerly  dedicated  to  funeral  ceremonies,  and 
now  seen  surrounded  by  sandy  mounds.  In  this  direction, 
the  city  on  this  side,  called  the  Libyan  suburb,  probably  ter- 
minated. Conspicuous  in  the  centre  of  the  view,  on  the  culti- 
vated ground  between  the  Memnonium  and  Medeenet  Habou, 
stands,  in  lonely,  isolated  grandeur,  the  colossal  statue  of  the 
Vocal  Memnon,  and  its  more  distant  fellow;  the  earth  has 
risen  about  their  base  and  covered  the  fallen  fragments  of  that 
avenue  of  sphinxes  and  buildings  with  which  they  stood  con- 
nected. Beyond  these,  on  the  other  side  of  the  broad  solitary 
river,  appears,  at  a  prominent  point,  the  village  and  temple  of 
Luxor  ;  and  to  the  left  of  this,  at  the  distance  of  more  than  a 
mile,  are  the  groups  of  propylaea,  walls,  and  columns  of  Kar- 
nak,  whose  wonderful  extent  and  colossal  character  are  re- 
duced by  distance  to  a  confused,  undistinguishable  mass.  It 
was  around  and  far  beyond  this  central  ruin,  the  heart  of  old 
Thebes,  the  perished  city  extended  eastward  towards  the 
Arabian  mountains." 

To  attempt  a  minute  description  of  these  widespread  ruins 
would  be  idle.  The  utmost  that  can  be  done  is  to  glance  at 
some  of  the  more  prominent  features,  and  we  begin  with  the 
tombs  of  the  kings.  These  are  in  the  rear  of  Thebes,  and  are 
approached  through  a  desolate  ravine.  This  ravine  gradually 
narrowing,  is  at  length  terminated  by  a  range  of  gloomy  per- 
pendicular precipices,  at  the  foot  of  which  may  be  seen  cer- 
tain dark  apertures,  like  entrances  to  caverns.  These  are  the 
openings  to  the  tombs.  A  flight  of  steps  leads  down  into  the 
principal  tomb,  and  sculptures,  barely  discernible,  line  the 
walls  of  this  passage.  Candles  are  then  lighted,  and  the  ex- 
plorer enters  what  is  known  as  the  "  Hall  of  Beauty."  It  was 
8 


114  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Belzoni  who  discovered  this.  A  wall  once  terminated  the 
passage  to  the  spot ;  but  he,  suspecting  that  something  was 
beyond,  broke  through  the  wall  and  found  the  splendid  cham- 
bers within.  The  walls  are  covered  with  group  after  group 
of  figures,  the  colors  of  which  still  look  fresh,  and  the  execu- 
tion of  which  is  most  elaborate.  Room  succeeds  to  room, 
showing  that  the  solid  rock  has  been  cut  out  to  the  depth  of 
320  feet,  and  the  walls  throughout  are  covered.  Most  of  the 
representations  relate  to  the  mythology  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, and  much  yet  remains  to  be  deciphered.  In  the 
neighboring  tomb,  called  after  Bruce,  the  solid  rock  has  been 
penetrated  to  the  depth  of  405  feet.  In  this,  the  representa- 
tions refer  more  to  the  affairs  of  ordinary  life,  and  it  is  there- 
fore more  interesting  to  the  common  observer.  Various  articles 
of  furniture,  implements  of  husbandry,  and  usages  of  every- 
day life  are  here  presented  with  astonishing  freshness,  when 
we  consider  that  the  representations  cannot  be  less  than  two 
thousand  years  old. 

But  not  the  least  interesting  of  these  tombs  is  the  private 
one  of  Raschere,  which  Wilkinson  designates  by  the  number  35. 
It  is  in  this,  that  the  deeply  interesting  representation  of  the 
brick-makers  occurs,  irresistibly  carrying  the  mind  back  to  the 
story  of  Israelitish  bondage  and  Egyptian  oppression.  But 
of  this  picture,  delineated  on  a  future  page,  we  shall  have 
occasion  hereafter  to  speak  more  particularly. 

Medifiet  Habou.  Here  the  principal  building  is  the  colos- 
sal temple  and  palace  of  Rameses  III.  The  sculptures  on  the 
walls  here  have  been  minutely  described  by  Wilkinson,  and 
are  chiefly  representations  of  Rameses,  either  engaged  in  reli- 
gious ceremonies,  or  triumphing  in  battle.  Antiquarians  have 
here  found  some  of  their  best  materials.     The  external  walls 


VOCAL  MEMNON.  115 

present  a  sculptured  view  of  the  incidents  of  a  campaign  with 
some  oriental  enemy,  wherein  (as  is  usual)  every  delineation  is 
designed  to  glorify  Egypt.  Within  the  walls  of  these  vast 
ruins  is,  or  was,  a  Christian  temple,  of  Grecian  architecture : 
but  evidence  here  afforded  to  the  truth  of  the  Old  Testament, 
is  more  interesting  than  aught  else  to  be  seen.  Here  is  Rame- 
ses  smiting  (as  the  inscriptions  show)  the  Hittites;  a  priest  is 
recording  the  number  of  captives,  a  scribe  is  counting  the  hu- 
man hands  that  fall  at  the  feet  of  the  king ;  and  other  inscrip- 
tions inform  us,  as  does  also  Manetho,  that  he  drove  the  van- 
quished to  Syria. 

The  "  Vocal  Memnon."  This  colossal  statue  and  its  com- 
panion, standing  in  solemn  grandeur  in  the  midst  of  the  lonely 
waste,  are  represented  as  more  weather-beaten  and  scarred  by 
the  hand  of  time,  than  any  other  of  the  ruins  of  Thebes. 
"Their  lineaments,"  says  Bartlett,  "are  half  effaced,  and  their 
gigantic  limbs  fractured  and  blackened."  The  magnitude  of 
these  statues  is  extraordinary.  According  to  Mr.  Spencer,  "  the 
height  of  either  colossus  is  47  feet,  or  53  above  the  plain,  with 
the  pedestal,  which,  now  buried  from  6  ft.  10  in.  to  7  feet  below 
the  surface,  completes  to  its  base  a  total  of  60  feet.  They 
measure  about  18ft.  3 in.  across  the  shoulders;  16ft.  6 in.  from 
the  top  of  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow  ;  10  ft.  6  in.  from  the  top 
of  the  head  to  the  shoulder ;  17  ft.  9  in.  from  the  elbow  to 
the  finger's  end ;  and  19  ft.  8  in.  from  the  knee  to  the  plant  of 
the  foot.  The  thrones  are  ornamented  with  figures  of  the  god 
Nilus,  who,  holding  the  stalks  of  two  plants  peculiar  to  the 
river,  is  engaged  in  building  up  a  pedestal  or  table,  surmount- 
ed by  the  name  of  the  Egyptian  monarch — a  symbolic  group, 
indicating  his  dominion  over  the  upper  and  lower  countries. 
A  line   of  hieroglyphics  extends   perpendicularly  down   the 


116  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

back,  from  the  shoulder  to  the  pedestal,  containing  the  name 
of  the  Pharaoh  they  represent."  Wilkinson  informs  us  that 
the  stone  from  which  they  are  cut  is  not  found  within  many 
miles  of  the  spot  where  they  stand. 

Ancient  tradition  relates,  that  when  the  sun  rose  above  the 
mountains  of  Arabia,  and  touched  with  light  the  lips  of  the 
"  Vocal  Memnon,"  it  uttered  responsive  sounds.  Some  have 
thought  the  sounds  were  accidental,  and  proceeding  from  natu- 
ral causes,  were  similar  to  those  which  sometimes,  in  certain 
states  of  ihe  atmosphere  and  directions  of  the  winds,  issue  from 
among  hollow  rocks.  The  better  opinion,  however,  attributes 
them  to  the  jugglery  of  priestcraft.  These  statues  were  not 
originally  isolated  as  they  now  are,  but  stood  in  advance  of  a 
large  temple,  with  which  they  were  connected  by  a  long  ave- 
nue of  other  statues  that  led  in  one  direction  to  the  river,  and 
thence,  as  Wilkinson  supposes,  communicated  with  Luxor  on 
the  other  side  of  the  river,  by  means  of  a  ferry,  thus  forming 
one  of  the  crowded  thoroughfares  of  ancient  Thebes. 

Now,  crossing  the  river,  we  come  to  Luxor.  Splendid  as 
it  must  once  have  been,  this  temple  is  now  so  disguised  and 
disfigured  by  miserable  mud  huts  and  paltry  buildings,  that  it 
is,  perhaps,  the  least  interesting  of  the  ruins  at  Thebes.  The 
edifice  was  immense,  and  there  still  remains  the  grand  entrance, 
as  represented  in  the  drawing  with  which  we  have  enriched 
our  pages.  There  was  once  here  another  obelisk.  It  now 
stands  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  at  Paris.  The  red  granite, 
however,  of  which  it  is  composed,  long  as  it  has  withstood  the 
climate  of  Egypt,  is  yielding  to  the  corrosive  atmosphere  of 
France. 

Proceeding  from  Luxor,  an  avenue,  lined  with  a  double 
row  of  sphinxes,  and  about  a  mile  in  length,  formerly  led 


I 


- 


LUXOR— KARNAK.  117 

toward  Karnac.  Of  this  avenue  few  traces  now  remain.  Fol- 
lowing its  course,  however,  the  explorer  reaches  at  last  a  spot 
from  which  he  gets  the  first  view  of  Karnac,  the  most  striking 
feature  of  Thebes.  A  minute  description  of  it  is  here  impos- 
sible, for  a  perfect  wilderness  of  temples,  courts,  propylaea, 
gateways,  and  obelisks,  is  all  around.  We  subjoin  the  account 
which  Bartlett  gives  of  his  visit  to  the  Great  Hall : 

"  We  had  spent  so  much  time  in  the  examination  of  Luxor, 
and  of  the  other  portions  of  Karnak,  that  the  evening  was 
advanced  when  we  arrived  at  the  Great  Hall.  The  shadows 
were  creeping  solemnly  through  the  intricate  recesses  of  its 
forest  of  columns,  but  the  red  light  rested  for  a  while  upon 
their  beautiful  flower-shaped  capitals,  the  paintings  upon  which, 
scarred  and  worn  as  they  are  by  the  accidents  of  3,000  years, 
still  display,  under  a  strong  light,  much  of  their  original  vivid- 
ness. It  is  a  perfect  wilderness  of  ruin,  almost  outrunning  the 
wildest  imagination  or  the  most  fantastic  dream.  We  paced 
slowly  down  the  central  avenue.  The  bases  of  the  columns 
are  buried  among  the  fallen  fragments  of  the  roof  and  a  mass 
of  superincumbent  earth  ;  from  his  hiding-place  amidst  which 
the  jackal  began  to  steal  forth,  and  wake  the  echoes  of  the 
ruins  with  his  blood-curdling  shriek ;  whilst  the  shadowy  bat 
flitted,  spirit-like,  from  dusky  pillar  to*pUla.r.  From  the  centre 
of  the  hall,  whichever  way  we  looked  through  the  deepening 
gloom,  there  seemed  no  end  to  the  labyrinthine  ruins.  Obe- 
lisks and  columns,  some  erect  in  their  pristine  beauty,  others 
fallen  across,  and  hurled  together  in  hideous  confusion,  forming 
wild  arcades  of  ruin  ;  enormous  masses  of  prostrate  walls  and 
propylaea,  seemed  to  have  required  either  to  construct  or  to 
destroy  them  the  power  of  a  fabled  race  of  giants.  Pillars, 
obelisks  and  walls,  of  this  immense  hall,  were  covered  with 


118  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

the  forms  of  monarchs  who  reigned,  and  of  the  gods  who  were 
once  worshipped  within  it.  Involuntarily  the  mind  goes  back, 
in  gazing  on  them,  to  the  period  of  its  original  splendor,  when 
Rameses  in  triumph  returned  from  his  oriental  conquests, — 
pictures  the  pile  in  all  its  completeness,  the  hall  of  a  hundred 
and  thirty  columns  with  its  superb  roof,  glittering  in  all  the 
vivid  beauty  of  its  paintings,  thronged  with  monarchs,  and 
priests,  and  worshippers,  and  devoted  to  splendid  and  gor- 
geous ceremonies." 

Wilkinson  furnishes  the  following  dimensions  of  this  splen- 
did hall : 

"  It  measures  170  feet  by  329,  supported  by  a  central  ave- 
nue of  twelve  massive  columns,  66  feet  high  (without  the 
pedestal  and  abacus)  and  12  in  diameter,  besides  a  hundred 
and  twenty-two  of  smaller,  or  rather  less  gigantic  dimensions, 
41  feet  9  inches  in  height,  and  27  feet  6  inches  in  circumfe- 
rence, distributed  in  seven  lines  on  either  side  of  the  former. 
The  twelve  central  columns  were  originally  fourteen,  but  the 
two  northernmost  have  been  inclosed  within  the  front  towers 
or  propylsea,  apparently  in  the  time  of  Osieri  himself,  the 
founder  of  the  hall." 

The  reader  may  form  some  faint  idea  of  the  appearance  of 
this  hall  from  our  frontispiece. 

"  The  imagination  is,  no  doubt,  bewildered  in  following 
these  numerous  details,  and  yet  much  is  left  undescribed  and 
even  unnoticed,  and  the  eye,  even  of  the  visitor,  more  than 
satisfied  with  seeing,  will  return  to  the  prominent  objects,  those 
alone  of  which  he  can  expect  to  retain  a  vivid  recollection. 
The  Great  Hall  will  attract  his  attention  above  every  thing  else. 
Besides  the  grandeur  of  its  proportions,  he  will  be  struck  with 
the  elaborate  manner  in  which  every  part  was  sculptured  and 


ESNEH— GAWAZEE.  119 

painted,  with  representations  of  the  worship  of  the  chief  deity 
of  Thebes,  which,  emblematic  as  they  might  be  to  the  learned, 
to  the  common  people  must  have  had  a  highly  debasing  and 
sensualizing  tendency.  Perhaps  the  finest  historical  sculp- 
tures at  Thebes  are  to  be  found  on  the  eastern  external  wall 
of  the  Great  Hall.  Here  the  genius  of  Egyptian  sculpture 
appears  to  have  reached  its  height,  and  to  approach  the  high 
character  of  Grecian  art,  and  we  admire  no  less  the  fertility 
of  invention,  masterly  execution,  and  expression  which  ani- 
mates the  several  groups,  than  we  follow  out  with  interest  all 
the  incidents  of  the  different  wars  and  triumphs  of  the  Egyp- 
tian monarchs,  so  vividly  represented,  the  scene  of  which  Wil- 
kinson supposes  to  have  been  in  Asia,  as  the  names  of 
'Canana'  and  'Lemanon'  are  deciphered  among  the  list  of 
places." 

Breaking  away  from  Thebes,  with  its  manifold  objects  of 
interest,  to  which  Wilkinson  has  devoted  a  volume,  the  travel- 
ler sails  up  the  river  to  Esneh,  the  next  point  of  attraction. 
This  place  is  the  headquarters  of  the  banished  dancing  girls, 
mentioned  by  all  travellers.  But  here  we  will  quote  from  Mr. 
Spencer  : 

"  Esneh  has  become  the  place  of  exile  of  the  dancing  girls, 
or  Ghawazy,  who  formerly  were  permitted  to  exhibit  their 
indecencies  in  Cairo,  and  have  been  spoken  of  by  several  tra- 
vellers, in  years  that  are  gone  by,  as  one  of  the  many  strange 
sights  to  be  seen  in  Egypt.  At  Esneh  these  prostitutes  carry 
on  a  regular  business,  and  hire  themselves  for  the  day  or  even- 
ing to  any  whose  tastes  are  prurient  enough  to  wish  to  behold 
their  obscene  exhibitions.  It  ought  certainly  to  be  a  matter  of 
deep  regret,  that  there  are  any  to  be  found  at  this  day,  who 
deem  themselves  justified  in  attending  a  dance  of  this  charac- 


120  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

ter ;  for  my  part,  I  have  never  been  able  to  understand  why 
filthy  songs,  licentious  dances,  and  the  most  disgusting  immo- 
desty should  be  encouraged  by  gentlemen,  and  those  wearing 
the  Christian  name,  because  these  things  take  place  in  Egypt, 
rather  than  at  home  ;  nor  further,  am  I  able  to  comprehend, 
why  what  is  wrong  in  itself  should  not  be  discountenanced 
wherever  it  exists  ;  or  why  a  man's  morals  and  principles 
should  not  be  held  as  sacred  and  as  binding  in  the  east  as  in 
the  west.  If  I  could  so  far  have  forgotten  what  was  due  to 
the  virtuous  female,  as  to  have  gone  to  see  these  Ghawazy,  I 
should  not  have  dared  to  pollute  these  pages  with  any  accounts 
of  scenes  which  are  only  equalled  by  some  of  the  outrages 
upon  morality  in  certain  portions  of  Paris.  That  it  may  not 
be  supposed  that  my  language  is  stronger  than  the  occasion 
warrants,  I  beg  to  use  the  words  of  Mr.  Lane,  than  whom  it 
would  be  impossible  to  find  a  higher  authority :  '  The  Gha- 
wazee  often  perform  in  the  court  of  a  house,  or  in  the  street 
before  the  door,  on  certain  occasions  of  festivity  in  the  hareem  ; 
as,  for  instance,  on  the  occasion  of  a  marriage,  or  the  birth  of 
a  child.  They  are  never  admitted  into  a  respectable  hareem  ; 
but  are  not  unfrequently  hired  to  entertain  a  party  of  men  in 
the  house  of  some  rake.  In  this  case,  as  might  be  expected, 
their  performances  are  yet  more  lascivious  than  those  which 
I  have  already  mentioned.  Some  of  them,  when  they  exhibit 
before  a  private  party  of  men,  wear  nothing  but  the  shintiyan 
(or  trowsers),  and  a  tob  (or  a  very  full  shirt  or  gown)  of  semi- 
transparent  colored  gauze,  open  nearly  half  way  down  the 
front.  To  extinguish  the  least  spark  of  modesty,  which  they 
may  yet  sometimes  affect  to  retain,  they  are  plentifully  sup- 
plied with  brandy,  or  some  other  intoxicating  liquor.  The 
scenes  which   ensue  cannot  be   described.      I  need  scarcely 


KOOM-OMBOS.  121 

add  that  these  women  are  the  most  abandoned  of  the  courte- 
zans of  Egypt.'  Sir  G.  Wilkinson  uses  language  equally- 
strong,  and  characterized  by  indignation  and  warmth." 

There  is  a  temple  here,  the  inside  of  which  was  cleared  out 
by  Mohamed  Ali,  and  the  portico  of  which  is  probably  the 
best  specimen  of  the  Ptolemaic  style  in  Egypt.  Beyond  this 
portico  there  is  but  little  to  attract  the  voyager.  Not  so,  how- 
ever, with  Edfou,  to  which  the  traveller  next  comes.  It  is 
thus  described  by  a  recent  visitor. 

"  It  stands  on  rising  ground  not  far  from  the  Nile,  and  as 
the  external  wall  with  which  it  is  surrounded  is  entire,  gives 
us  a  complete  idea  of  the  vast  size  and  massive  grandeur  of  an 
Egytian  temple  in  its  state  of  completeness,  serving  no  less  as 
a  fortress  and  a  palace  for  the  sacerdotal  caste,  than  as  a  place 
for  the  solemn  rites  of  religion.  We  advanced  through  a 
wretched  village  of  mud  hovels  swarming  with  ragged  Fellahs, 
and  beset  by  naked  children,  who  raised  a  shrill  demand  of 
"  beckshish  howaga,"  accompanied  by  the  barking  of  a  host 
of  dogs,  who,  roused  by  our  arrival  from  dozing  in  the  sun 
upon  heaps  of  festering  filth,  joined  the  discordant  chorus. 
Thus  escorted  we  reached  the  magnificent  propylon,  covered 
with  gigantic  forms  of  mythological  and  regal  personages,  who 
seemed  to  look  down  impassive  and  contemptuous  upon  the 
din  and  dust  raised  by  the  degenerate  tenants  of  their  beloved 
and  once  glorious  land.  Spite  of  the  sticks  of  dragoman  and 
boatmen,  some  of  the  more  active  contrived  to  glide  in  with 
us,  unperceived,  to  the  interior,  while  others,  climbing  like 
monkeys  to  the  top  of  the  corridors,  pursued  us  with  their  imp- 
ish antics  and  importunate  clamor,  till,  their  position  being 
stormed,  they  were  driven  down  with  kicks  and  blows  into 
the  area  below,  raising  in  their  escape  whole  clouds  of  suflfo- 


122  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

eating  dust.  Meanwhile,  passing  between  the  solemn  gateway- 
towers,  which  are  entirely  perfect,  we  entered  the  first  court, 
which  is  also  entire,  with  its  surrounding  corridor  supported  by 
ranges  of  light  Ptolemaic  pillars,  the  flat  roof  of  which  served 
equally  as  a  promenade  or  vantage-ground  of  defence.  At  the 
extremity  of  this  court,  and  forming  the  vestibule  of  the  tem- 
ple itself,  is  a  magnificent  corridor,  now  almost  filled  with  ac- 
cumulated earth,  but  with  the  beautiful  capitals  still  entire, 
and  bright  with  azure  and  green  as  when  first  from  the  paint- 
er's hand." 

We  next  come  upon  the  grand  ruins  of  Koom-Ombos, 
nearly  ingulfed  in  the  sand.  The  chief  object  here  is  the 
great  temple  of  Sevek-ra,  the  Egyptian  Saturn.  The  annexed 
view  will  convey  to  the  reader  a  better  idea  of  it  than  would 
any  detail  of  description. 

E'Souan  (the  ancient  Syene),  Elephantine,  the  beautiful 
island  of  Philae,  and  the  cataracts,  terminate  the  voyage  in 
Egypt  proper.  These  last,  as  eye-witnesses  state,  present  a 
scene  less  striking  than  that  afforded  by  the  rapids  above  the 
falls  of  Niagara ;  but  Philae  will,  for  its  surpassing  beauty,  long 
rivet  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  "  Philae  itself,"  thus  writes 
Bartlett,  "  was  a  spot  of  peculiar  sanctity  as  one  of  the  fabled 
burial  places  of  Osiris." 

" '  So  holy  was  the  place,'  says  Wilkinson,  c  that  no  one 
was  permitted  to  visit  it  without  express  permission ;  and  it 
was  fancied  that  no  bird  would  fly  over,  nor  fish  swim  near 
this  consecrated  ground.  Osiris,  in  his  mysterious  character, 
was  the  greatest  of  the  Egyptian  deities,  but  little  is  known  of 
those  undivulged  secrets  which  the  ancients  took  so  much  care 
to  conceal.  So  cautious  indeed  were  the  initiated,  that  they 
made   a  scruple  even  of  mentioning  him,   and  Herodotus, 


*  ••  **♦ 


"**♦«#• 


^ 


PHIL*:.  123 

whenever  he  relates  any  thing  concerning  this  deity,  excuses 
himself  from  uttering  his  name.  His  principal  office  as  an 
Egyptian  deity  was  to  judge  the  dead,  and  to  rule  over  that 
kingdom  where  the  souls  of  good  men  were  admitted  to  eternal 
felicity.  Seated  on  his  throne,  accompanied  by  Isis  and  Ne- 
phys,  with  the  four  genii  of  Amenti,  who  stand  on  a  lotus 
growing  from  the  waters  in  the  centre  of  the  divine  abode,  he 
receives  an  account  of  the  actions  of  the  deceased,'  which  are 
weighed  in  the  scales  of  truth.  But  it  is  in  his  mysterious 
character,  as  the  manifestation  of  the  Divinity  on  earth,  as  an 
impersonation  of  his  goodness,  that  his  peculiar  sanctity  ap- 
pears to  have  consisted.  He  appeared  on  earth  to  benefit 
mankind,  and  after  having  performed  the  duties  he  had  come 
to  fulfil,  and  falling  a  sacrifice  to  Typho,  the  evil  principle, 
who  was  at  length  overcome  by  his  influence,  after  his  leaving 
the  world  he  rose  again  to  a  new  life,  and  became  the  judge 
of  mankind  in  a  future  state.  The  dead  also,  after  having 
passed  their  final  ordeal  and  been  absolved  from  sin,  obtained 
in  his  name,  which  they  then  took,  the  blessings  of  eternal 
felicity.  This  very  remarkable  analogy  to  the  office  sustained 
by  our  Saviour,  may  induce  some  to  think,'  says  Wilkinson, 
'  that  the  Egyptians,  being  aware  of  the  promises  of  his  com- 
ing, had  anticipated  the  event,  and  introduced  that  mystery 
into  their  religious  system.'  Whether  this  was  the  case,  or 
whether  these  ideas  rather  arose  spontaneously  in  the  Egyp- 
tian mind,  must  remain  uncertain,  but  the  functions  thus  as- 
scribed  to  Osiris  may  well  explain  the  peculiar  and  distin- 
guishing reverence  in  which  his  fabled  burial-place  was  held.* 
His  sepulchre,  says  Diodorus,  is  revered  by  all  the  priests 
throughout  Egypt,  and  three  hundred  and  sixty  cups  are  filled 

*  See  more  fully  on  this  subject  Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians,  2d  Series,  vol.  L 


X24  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

daily  with  milk  by  priests  expressly  appointed  for  this  purpose, 
who,  calling  on  the  names  of  the  gods,  utter  a  solemn  lamen- 
tation, wherefore  the  island  can  only  be  approached  by  the 
priests ;  and  the  most  solemn  oath  taken  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Thebaid,  is  to  swear  by  Osiris  who  lies  buried  in  Philae. 

"  Associated  with  Osiris  was  Isis ;  she  attended  upon  him 
as  judge  of  the  dead,  in  which  character  she  was  regarded  as 
the  greatest  of  the  Egyptian  goddesses.  Osiris,  Isis,  and  their 
son  Horus,  formed  the  triad  worshipped  at  Philae.  Isis  was 
said  to  be  the  protector  of  her  brother,  and  his  royal  consort  or 
sister.  In  this  quality  she  answered  in  the  regions  of  the 
dead  to  Proserpine,  the  wife  of  Pluto,  among  the  Greeks.  Isis 
was  metaphorically  considered  to  be  the  earth,  or  feminine 
part  of  nature,  or  matter,  in  reference  to  the  creative  action  of 
Deity.  Horus,  answering  to  the  Greek  Apollo,  was  the  aven- 
ger of  his  father,  Osiris,  after  his  being  put  to  death  by  Ty- 
phon,  whom  he  is  represented  as  overcoming  in  the  form  of  a 
snake.  The  same  idea  also  existed  in  the  Greek,  Scandina- 
vian, and  Indian  mythology,  and,  like  the  story  of  Osiris,  may 
have  been  derived,  as  Wilkinson  suggests,  from  Bible  tradition, 
or  from  some  common  conception  of  oriental  origin,  to  shadow 
forth  the  apparent  struggle  between  the  good  and  evil  princi- 
ples which  has  so  often  perplexed  philosophy  to  explain." 

"  The  views  from  every  part  of  the  island  are  exquisitely 
beautiful,  but  none  surpasses  that  obtained  from  the  end  of  the 
ruined  gallery,  extending  from  the  great  propylon  to  the  ex- 
treme point.  This  corridor,  resting  on  the  wall  which  sur- 
rounded the  island,  to  protect  it  from  the  current,  is  a  happy 
and  graceful  specimen  of  the  lighter  Egyptian  architecture ; 
the  four  sides  of  the  capitals  present  the  smiling  features  of 
Isis.     Attached  to  its  extremity  is  a  small  obelisk  directly 


PHILiE.  125 

overlooking  the  river,  of  which  a  broad,  dreamy,  lake-like 
reach  comes  down  from  the  south,  bordered  by  high  mountains, 
and  fringed  with  a  border  of  palm  groves.  Sweeping  around 
the  dark,  fantastic,  up-piled  rocks  of  Bigge,  the  current  breaks 
against  this  end  of  the  island,  and,  peeping  over  the  perpendi- 
ular  wall  which  breaks  its  force,  we  look  down  directly  into 
its  rapid  waters,  as  they  hurry  away  on  their  impetuous  course 
towards  the  cataracts." 

We  cannot  do  better  than  close  our  chapter  of  a  voyage  on 
the  Nile  with  the  description  of  Philae,  given  by  one  of 
the  latest  visitors  to  it  from  our  own  country,  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Spencer : 

"  On  landing,  we  clambered  up  a  rather  steep  and  high 
bank,  which  brought  us  to  the  level  of  the  ruined  temples,  and 
certainly  presented  before  our  eyes  a  most  novel  scene  ;  for  the 
whole  island  is  devoted  to  the  vast  erections  which  have  here 
been  made  ;  and  not  a  living  creature,  or  a  sign  of  life,  can 
any  where  be  seen.  All  the  glory  of  Philae  has  passed  away 
for  ever,  and  its  hundreds  of  priests  and  priestly  attendants, 
and  its  crowds  of  worshippers,  from  the  kings  and  nobles  down 
to  the  peasant  and  the  slave,  are  gone,  and  the  place  which 
once  was  theirs  knows  them  now  no  more.  Ourselves  were 
the  only  persons  on  the  island,  and  we  wandered  through  the 
ruins,  and  looked  upon  the  deserted  halls  and  sanctuaries  of 
pagan  idolatry,  alone  and  unattended,  save  by  one  or  two  little 
boys,  who  had  swum  across  the  channel  on  a  log  of  wood,  to 
salute  us  with  the  ever-ready  cry  of  bakhshish !  We  entered 
the  ruins  at  the  northerly  end,  and  before  looking  at  any  ob- 
jects in  detail,  gave  a  cursory  glance  at  the  whole.  The  prin- 
cipal building  is  the  temple  of  the  moon-crowned  Isis,  the 
rooms  of  which  we  explored  as  well  as  we  could ;  we  mounted 


126  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

the  stone  staircase,  which  led  to  the  top  of  the  temple,  or 
second  story,  as  I  may  call  it.  Here  we  looked  into  a  cham- 
ber with  a  narrow  portal,  and  beheld  a  number  of  hierogly- 
phics and  sculptured  figures,  which,  according  to  Wilkinson, 
relate  to  the  death  and  resurrection  of  Osiris,  that  deity  of 
whom  the  Egyptian  stood  in  such  awe,  as  to  lower  his  voice 
and  drop  his  eyes,  when  he  uttered  the  fearful  adjuration, 
'  By  him  that  sleeps  in  Philae  ! '  This  interesting  chamber  is 
nearly  over  the  western  adytum,  and  is  about  fifteen  feet  long, 
by  nine  wide  and  eight  high.  Here,  too,  we  had  a  fine  view 
of  the  island  itself  and  the  surrounding  scenery ;  one  object 
in  particular  attracted  our  attention :  it  was  a  large  stone  or 
rock  on  the  edge  of  the  water,  opposite  the  northerly  end  of 
Philee  ;  it  looms  up  very  remarkably,  and  presents  a  form  not 
unlike  a  vast  altar  or  shrine ;  possibly  it  may  have  been  used 
for  some  religious  purposes,  though  that  is  denied  by  the  best 
authorities.  To  the  west  we  saw  the  island  of  Biggeh,  a  wild 
and  desolate  spot,  where  are  some  few  remains  of  early  days, 
and  one  or  two  mud  huts  built  in  their  midst ;  and  to  the 
south  and  west  we  gazed  upon  the  extent  of  the  buildings 
here  spread  out,  the  narrow  channels  of  the  Nile,  which  flow 
on  either  side  of  this  lovely  island,  and  the  arid  and  parched 
up  plains  and  hills  of  Nubia  stretching  away  in  the  distance. 
Passing  through  the  portal  of  the  first  propylon,  we  emerged 
into  a  large  open  court,  with  a  fine  corridor  on  either  hand, 
and  where,  near  the  commencement  of  the  eastern  corridor,  as 
well  as  I  could  make  out,  is  the  small  chapel  of  iEsculapius. 
The  sculptures  on  the  propyla  are  colossal,  and  though  in  great 
measure  defaced  by  the  hand  of  violence,  still  evince  the  skill 
of  the  artist,  and  the  taste  and  habits  of  the  age.  In  the  next 
passage-way,  through  the  second  propylon,  we  read  the  famous 


PHILiE.  127 

inscription  which  the  army  of  Napoleon  caused  to  be  placed 
here,  and  which  has  not  escaped  disfigurement ;  and  on 
emerging  into  the  open  space  beyond,  found  ourselves  in  a 
position  of  much  interest :  we  were  standing  before  the  Great 
Temple,  in  all  its  imposing  grandeur  ;  while  to  the  south,  for 
a  very  long  distance,  was  a  continued  line  of  columns,  more 
or  less  broken,  on  both  sides  of  the  area,  terminating  in  what 
Irby  and  Mangles  call  '  a  large  pylon  formed  by  two  moles  : ' 
here  a  lofty  obelisk  stands,  and  marks  the  extreme  southerly 
end  of  the  island.  Formerly  there  were  two  obelisks,  one  on 
each  side,  at  the  close  of  the  long  colonnade  ;  but  at  present 
only  one  remains,  the  other  having  been  removed  to  England 
by  Mr.  Banks,  many  years  ago." 


CHAPTER  YI. 

Remarks  on  testimony. — Application  of  them  to  the  evidence  afforded  by  the 
monuments. — Facts  related  in  Abraham's  history  tested  by  Egyptian  re- 
mains. 

When  a  number  of  well-authenticated  contemporaneous  facts 
are  brought  into  juxtaposition ;  and  when  thus  combined, 
they  show,  that  except  in  a  certain  contingency,  their  simul- 
taneous existence  was  not  possible ;  that  contingency  is  as 
clearly  proved  as  are  the  well-authenticated  facts  that  thus 
constitute  what  is  called  circumstantial  evidence.  "  Circum- 
stances," it  has  been  said,  "  cannot  lie :"  this  is  true ;  but 
those  who  relate  the  circumstances  may ;  hence  it  is  all- 
important  that  the  facts  which  constitute  the  circumstances 
should  be  verified  beyond  all  reasonable  question ;  when  thus 
verified,  the  inevitable  deductions  from  them  are  entitled  to 
just  as  much  confidence  as  if  they  were  proved  by  direct 
testimony. 

Again,  it  often  happens  that  most  important  testimony  is 
purely  incidental.  The  facts  or  circumstances  that  furnish 
the  incidents,  have  seemingly  no  direct  connection  with  the 
point  to  be  proved.  They  are  brought  forward  with  reference 
to  another  and  totally  different  point,  when  their  coincidence 
with  the  alleged  fact  under  investigation  is,  for  the  first  time, 
unexpectedly  developed.  Such  testimony  has  the  advantage 
of  being  unsuspected,  for  it  could  not  have  been  manufactured 


INCIDENTAL  TESTIMONY.  129 

for  the  occasion :  undesigned  coincidences,  therefore,  (particu- 
larly when  found  in  documents  having  no  connection  with, 
or  reference  to,  the  same  principal  subject,)  are  never  to  be 
slighted  in  weighing  testimony. 

These  are^  important  considerations  to  be  borne  in  mind 
upon  the  very  threshold  of  the  investigation  on  which  we  are 
about  to  enter.  What,  for  instance,  are  the  facts  ?  We  are  in 
possession  of  a  very  ancient  documentary  history,  the  Bible, 
the  truth  of  which  is  established  satisfactorily  to  our  minds  by 
distinct  and  independent  testimony,  directly  applicable  to  the 
question  of  its  truth  or  falsehood.  Almost  within  the  present 
generation,  the  interesting  discovery  has  been  made  of  the  mode 
of  interpreting  the  characters,  long  illegible,  delineated  on  the 
monuments  and  in  the  writings  of  an  ancient  country,  a  part 
of  whose  history  is  found  incidentally  written  in  our  Bible, 
because  it  was  connected  with  the  progress  of  another  people, 
of  whom  our  book  professedly  gives  the  history.  Now  it  is 
very  obvious,  that  if  these  modern  discoveries  bring  to  light 
historical  events  which  synchronize  with  the  relation  of  them 
given  in  our  book ;  or  if  they  illustrate,  in  hundreds  of  par- 
ticulars, national  usages,  or  manners,  or  arts,  all  of  which  are 
found  to  harmonize  with  what  our  document  casually  illus- 
trates of  customs,  &c,  among  the  ancient  people  to  whom  it 
incidentally  refers ;  then  cumulative  testimony  is  afforded 
thereby  to  the  truth  of  our  document^  so  far,  at  least,  as  our 
book  and  the  monuments  professedly  speak  of  the  same  thing. 

It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  Bible  does  not  actually  need 
this  cumulative  testimony  to  its  authenticity.  Every  subject 
of  investigation  must  primarily  be  examined  by  the  species  of 
testimony  applicable  to  the  proof  of  its  truth ;  and  of  this 
suitable  proof,  we  apprehend  there  is  quite  enough  to  sustain 


130  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

the  Bible.  It  is  not,  therefore,  because  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
evidence  that  investigations  like  the  present  have  been  made : 
they  have  been  called  for,  rather,  by  the  bold  assertions  of 
those  who  have  proclaimed  their  discovery  in  the  monuments, 
of  evidence  directly  contradicting  the  truth  of  the  Bible.  It 
is  not  pretended  by  them,  that  some  of  the  facts  and  circum- 
stances mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  are  not  confirmed  by 
the  monuments ;  but  their  objection  is  founded  chiefly  on  the 
chronology  of  the  book :  they  affirm  an  existence  and  occu- 
pancy of  Egypt  by  man,  many  thousands  of  years  anterior  to 
the  supposed  date  of  the  creation  of  man.  It  is  no  part  of  our 
purpose  in  this  work,  (as  we  have  already  said,)  to  enter  into 
the  examination  of  their  supposed  chronology.  We  would, 
however,  here  simply  say,  that,  even  on  their  own  grounds,  it 
is,  in  the  judgment  of  men  as  learned  as  themselves,  beset  with 
insuperable  difficulties ;  and  is  so  far  from  having  reached  the 
certainty  of  proof )  that  great  differences  of  opinion  exist  among 
themselves,  on  the  subject.  Beside,  even  supposing  the  com- 
monly received  chronology  of  the  Pentateuch,  or  that  of  the 
Septuagint,  to  be  erroneous,  (which,  as  to  the  latter,  we  are 
very  far  from  conceding,)  it  would  be  difficult  to  perceive  how 
this  disproves  the  existence  of  a  fact  distinctly  recorded,  in  its 
historical  statements ;  such  as  the  exode  of  the  Israelites,  for 
instance.  That  may  have  occurred,  though  the  precise  time 
of  its  occurrence  be  inaccurately  stated.  It  does  not  affect  the 
respect  due  to  the  book  as  an  inspired  volume  of  fact  or  doc- 
trine, to  consider  its  general  chronology  an  open  question : 
that  it  has  been  so  considered  and  treated  by  some  of  the  most 
pious  and  learned  men,  is  a  fact  well  known  to  the  Biblical 
student.  When  time  is  not  of  the  essence  of  a  fact  recorded, 
it  is  unimportant.     There  are  few,  even  of  modern  histories, 


TESTIMONY  OF  THE  BIBLE.  131 

that  harmonize  in  dates ;  yet  no  one  doubts  the  facts  they 
state. 

In  this  case,  as  in  the  kindred  one  of  geological  science,  it 
would  seem  that  the  simple  purpose  for  which  the  book  was 
written  has  been  overlooked.  The  Bible  was  never  intended 
to  be  a  system  of  chronology,  nor  a  treatise  on  geology.  Its 
chief  purpose  (we  speak  now  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  part  more 
immediately  before  us)  was,  first,  to  communicate  the  great 
truth  of  one  only  God,  the  Creator,  thus  giving  a  death-blow  to 
idolatry ;  and  secondly,  to  preserve  the  leading  facts  connected 
with  the  origin  and  progress  of  a  nation,  designed  by  God  to 
preserve,  in  the  midst  of  error  and  corruption,  certain  religious 
truths  important  to  man  to  know.  If  matters  connected  with 
science  be  mentioned  or  alluded  to,  the  occurrence  is  inciden- 
tal ;  and  though  what  is  said  is  true,  it  does  not  necessarily 
embody  all  truth  on  that  subject,  nor  profess  so  to  do.  These 
remarks  are  not  made  as  an  apology  for  the  Bible,  in  its  sup- 
posed disagreement  with  the  discoveries  of  science :  we  say 
supposed  disagreement ;  for  we  are  free  to  confess  that  there 
is  not,  in  our  view,  one  syllable  in  the  Bible  contradicted  by 
the  discoveries  of  the  geologist,  however  ancient  he  may  make 
the  oldest  strata ;  nor  have  we  any  belief  in  the  assumption 
that  a  chronology  derived  (as  it  is  pretended)  from  monumen- 
tal evidence  in  Egypt,  proves  the  falsehood  of  the  ancient  and 
only  authentic  history  of  man,  contained  in  our  Bible. 

But  may  it  not  with  truth  be  said,  that  the  Bible  has  not 
been  treated  with  fairness  by  those  who  would  find,  in  the 
monuments,  its  refutation  ?  By  common  consent  they  seem 
to  have  rejected  its  aid,  though  it  is  the  only  written  record  in 
existence  professing  to  bo  contemporary  with  some  of  the 
events  sculptured  on  the  monuments  :  they  have  turned  away 


132  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

from  it,  to  rely  upon  the  classical  authorities,  the  oldest  of 
which  dates  at  least  1000  years  after  the  temples  on  which 
the  sculptures  occur.  Now,  that  a  record  of  the  same  fact  is 
sometimes  preserved  both  in  the  Bible  and  on  the  monuments, 
is  undeniable ;  should  not  this  coincidence  have  at  least  begot- 
ten the  suspicion  that  possibly,  as  a  mere  history,  illustrative 
of  the  monuments,  the  Bible  was  actually  the  best  help  to  be 
had  ?  Indeed,  had  it  been  presented  to  the  world  as  a  mere 
history  of  human  events,  without  any  other  claim  to  acceptance 
than  that  which  belongs  to  Herodotus,  for  instance ;  had  it 
not  professed  to  fulfil  the  higher  object  of  being  a  guide  from 
God,  authoritatively  addressed  to  man ;  who  can  doubt  that 
many  a  modern  archaeologist  would  have  gladly  availed  him- 
self of  its  aid,  and  trumpeted  forth  the  accuracy  of  his  hiero- 
glyphical  interpretations  as  proved  by  the  wonderful  confirma- 
tion they  received  from  that  veritable  historian,  Moses  1  Very 
sure  it  is,  that,  as  yet,  the  perfect  certainty  in  some  instances 
of  correct  hieroglyphical  interpretation  can  be  proved  only  by 
referring  to  the  narratives  of  the  Bible.  The  book  is  not 
indebted  to  the  monuments  for  confirmation  of  its  truth,  as 
much  as  the  monuments  are  to  it,  for  proof  of  their  correct 
interpretation.  It  would  seem,  too,  that  there  has  been  an 
error  even  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  friends  of  revelation,  in 
presenting  the  coincidences  between  the  Bible  and  the  monu- 
ments, as  exhibited  in  the  pictures  merely,  while  the  in- 
scriptions that  accompany  them,  and,  in  truth,  form  their 
explanation,  have  been  neglected. 

Entering  upon  a  comparison  of  the  Bible  with  Egyptian 
monuments,  these  preliminary  remarks  may  not  be  without 
use,  as  indicating,  in  some  degree,  what  we  may  expect  to  find. 
Whoever  supposes  that  he  will  meet  with  a  continuous  sculp- 


ANCIENT  DIVISION  OF  EGYPT.  133 

tured  history  of  Egypt,  or  even  of  that  part  of  her  history 
to  which  the  Bible  refers,  will  find  disappointment.  The  memo- 
rials that  we  now  see  were  not  designed  by  those  who  made 
them  to  present  any  such  history ;  they  are  the  records  of  sin- 
gle events,  most  commonly  conquests  and  triumphs  in  war, 
and  were  erected  by  pride  to  perpetuate  the  atrocities  of  blood- 
thirsty ambition :  they  never  tell  a  story  of  Egyptian  humilia- 
tion. No  success  over  Egypt,  no  national  misfortune  or  dis- 
grace ever  called  forth  the  labor  of  her  teeming  population,  or 
employed  the  skill  of  her  artists.  If,  therefore,  we  find  aught 
to  repay  the  toil  of  research,  it  must  be  gathered,  here  and 
there,  in  isolated  facts :  grouping  them  all  together  they  form  a 
mass  of  testimony,  the  more  valuable  from  being  incidental ; 
and  interesting  as  tending,  if  not  to  confirm,  yet  to  shed  light 
on  many  portions  of  that  book,  the  truth  of  which  is,  by  other 
and  independent  testimony,  already,  to  our  minds,  satisfactorily 
established. 


Egypt  was  formerly  divided  into  three  great  provinces. 
The  most  southern  part,  or  Upper  Egypt,  was  known  as  the 
Thebaid,  and  is  that  portion  of  the  great  valley  of  the  Nile,  in 
which  was  situated  one  of  the  great  capitals  of  the  whole  em- 
pire, the  city  of  Thebes.  The  grandeur  and  extent  of  this 
once  great  city  are  attested  by  the  colossal  ruins  which  still 
remain  to  mark  its  site,  now  occupied  in  part  by  the  modern 
towns  and  villages  of  Luxor,  Karnac,  and  other  places  of  infe- 
rior note. 

Middle  Egypt,  as  it  was  called,  lies  immediately  on  the 
north  of  the  Thebaid  ;  and  was  anciently  known  as  the  Hepta- 


134  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

nomis,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  divided  into  seven  nomes  or 
districts. 

Lower  Egypt  comprised  all  the  northern  portion  from  the 
Heptanomis  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  great  capital  here  was 
Memphis.  Its  site  is  now  covered  with  a  growth  of  date  palms  ; 
while  the  great  Sphinx,  the  pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  and  the  rock 
tombs,  are  almost  the  sole  monuments  of  its  former  splendor. 

The  geographical  feature,  however,  which,  in  our  present 
work,  is  most  interesting  to  us,  is  in  the  fact  of  the  contiguity 
of  Egypt  to  Canaan.  The  countries  were  separated  by  that 
part  of  Arabia  Petraea  which  extends  to  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Relations  of  a  political  and  commercial  kind 
existed  between  Egypt  and  Canaan  at  a  very  early  period,  and 
we  learn  as  much  from  the  Greek  historians :  but  a  more 
authentic  testimony  to  the  same  fact  is  to  be  found  in  the  his- 
tory contained  in  the  Bible.  The  oriental  name  of  Egypt, 
according  to  the  Scriptures,  was  Mizraim.  Mizraim  and 
Canaan  were  two  of  the  sons  of  Ham  [Gen.  x.  6].  It  seems 
to  be  generally  conceded  that  Egypt,  as  well  as  the  neighbor- 
ing regions,  was  peopled  by  some  of  the  descendants  of  Ham ; 
and  we  know  that  it  was  Canaan  who  gave  his  name  to  the 
country  that  was  colonized  by  his  family.  Nothing,  therefore, 
was  more  natural  than  that  an  intercourse  should  exist  between 
these  descendants  of  a  common  stock.  We  have  the  history 
in  the  Scriptures  of  such  intercourse  ;  and  we  now  enter  upon 
the  direct  inquiry,  how  far  the  statements  of  our  history  derive 
incidental  confirmation  from  facts  concerning  Egypt,  gathered 
from  other  sources. 


ABRAHAM.  135 


ABRAHAM. 


It  is  with  this  individual  that  the  history  of  the  Hebrews 
begins,  and  it  is  his  Scripture  biography  that  first  brings  us 
into  contact  with  Egyptian  usages.  For  our  present  purpose 
it  is  not  necessary  that  we  should  follow  out  his  life  in  all  its 
details.  Certain  acts  of  it  only,  bring  Egypt  into  view,  and  it 
is  with  these  alone  that  we  are  now  concerned.  Leaving  Ur 
of  the  Chaldees,  (now  Urfah,  as  it  is  supposed,)  the  place  of 
his  nativity,  we  find  him  at  length  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  a 
pastoral  chief,  leading  his  flocks  and  herds  to  fresh  pasture 
grounds,  as  necessity  might  require.  At  length  a  famine  arises 
in  Canaan,  and  Abraham,  who  was  then  in  the  southern  part 
of  that  country,  heard  that  there  was  corn  in  Egypt,  and 
determined  to  proceed  thither  with  his  family.  Beside  his  wife 
Sarai,  his  household  consisted  then  of  his  servants  only,  for  at 
that  time,  he  was  childless.  When  he  reached  the  borders  of 
Egypt,  he  had  an  opportunity  of  comparing  the  personal  ap- 
pearance of  his  wife  with  that  of  the  females  of  Egypt,  and 
found  the  complexion  of  the  one  much  fairer  than  that  of  the 
others.  Abraham  was  apprehensive  that  the  personal  appear- 
ance of  his  wife  might  render  her  an  object  of  attraction  to  the 
monarch  of  Egypt,  (who  was  known  by  the  general  term, 
Pharaoh ;)  and  was  thereby  induced  to  represent  her  as  his 
sister;  and  it  appears  that  his  fears  were  not  unfounded. 
"  The  princes  of  Pharaoh  "  saw  the  handsome  stranger,  and 
their  reports  of  her  beauty  soon  reached  the  ears  of  the  king. 
He  took  the  woman  into  his  house,  and  made  valuable  presents 
to  her  husband;  they  are  particularly  enumerated;  "sheep 
and  oxen,  and  he-asses,  and  men-servants,  and  maid-servants, 
and  she-asses  and  camels."    Pharaoh  presently  discovered  that 


136  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Sarah  was  Abraham's  wife,  and  not  his  sister,  as  he  had  sup- 
posed, and  therefore  desired  Abraham  to  take  her  and  go  his 
way.  Abraham  accordingly  left  Egypt,  taking  with  him  his 
wife  and  all  that  he  had,  and  is  represented  as  having  been 
very  rich  in  cattle,  in  silver,  and  in  gold. 

These  are  substantially  the  incidents  of  the  story,  as  it 
stands  recorded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  chapter  of 
Genesis.  And  here,  our  first  business  is  to  cull  from  this  nar- 
rative, the  facts  expressed  or  implied  in  it.  They  appear  to  be 
these : 

1.  Egypt  was  then  a  powerful  nation,  rich  and  civilized. 

2.  Lowe?'  Egypt  was  then  dry. 

3.  Its  kings  were  known  by  the  name  of  Pharaoh. 

4.  Domestic  servitude  then  existed  there. 

5.  There  was  famine  in  Canaan  and  abundance  in  Egypt. 

6.  Sarah  was  fair,  and  used  no  covering  or  veil  over  her 

face. 

7.  Pharaoh  ivished  to  place  her  in  his  harem. 

8.  There  was  no  dislike  of  Abraham's  pastoral  occupation 

then  manifested. 

9.  His  gifts  were  sheep,  oxen,  he  and  she-asses,  men  and 

maid- servants,  camels,  gold  and  silver. 

10.  Abraham  accepted  these  gifts. 

Our  next  inquiry  is  this :  Are  these  facts  illustrated  or 
incidentally  confirmed  by  any  evidence  we  possess  relating  to 
Egypt? 

1.  Egypt  was  then  a  powerful  nation,  rich  and  civilized. 
A  certain  class  of  "  Egyptologists  "  is  not  disposed  to  con- 
tradict this.     In  fact  they  claim  that  many  thousands  of  years 


ABRAHAM.  137 

before  Abraham,  Egypt  was  a  populous  and  highly  cultivated 
country.  The  scope  of  their  argument  is  that  the  monuments 
sustain  their  view  of  a  chronology,  that  carries  them  back  to 
a  period  of  time  very  much  earlier  than  the  days  of  Abraham ; 
and  they  thence  infer  that  it  must  have  taken  many  thousands 
of  years  for  a  people  to  grow  up  from  a  state  of  barbarism, 
into  the  "  high  civilization  "  that  must  have  existed  at  the  time 
of  the  earliest  monuments.  They  thus  build  upon  an  infer- 
ence founded  on  an  assumption.  The  assumption  is  that  they 
find,  in  Egyptian  antiquities,  a  support  for  their  chronology ; 
a  point  which  they  certainly  cannot  prove  by  any  thing  yet 
discovered ;  and  they  thence  deduce  an  inference  founded,  as 
it  seems  to  us,  on  an  error.  For,  by  what  authority,  we  ask, 
are  they  sustained  in  the  position,  that  the  career  of  early 
nations  commenced  in  barbarism  ?  How  will  they  establish 
the  fact  that  the  earliest  races  of  men  were  savages  ?  From 
the  testimony  of  the  oldest  authentic  history  of  man,  a  differ- 
ent conclusion  seems  inevitable.  Take  the  only  history  we 
have  of  the  antediluvian  period,  and  what  trace  do  we  find  in 
it  of  savage  life  1  Not  one.  Does  not  this  fact,  then,  rather 
indicate  that  savageism  was  a  degeneracy,  in  some  portion  of 
the  human  family,  from  an  original  condition  of  civilization 
existing  in  some  greater  or  less  degree  ?  There  is  nothing  in 
what  we  know  of  man's  history  and  progress  to  justify  the 
opinion,  that  in  early  times  he  proceeded  from  a  savage  to  a 
civilized  state ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  much  to  confirm  the 
belief,  that  from  civilization  he  degenerated  into  barbarism. 

Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  it  is  still  true  that  Egypt  had 
long  been  occupied  by  civilized  men,  before  Abraham  saw  it. 
It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  his  eye  rested  on  some  of 
the  monuments  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  which  we  may  now  look. 


138  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Its  condition  as  a  country,  subsisting  under  a  well  established 
form  of  government,  is  an  important  fact,  as  we  shall  see,  in 
our  further  progress ;  and  the  monuments,  without  carrying 
us  back  into  a  past,  too  remote  for  reasonable  belief,  do  still 
indicate  the  existence  of  all  those  arts  of  civilization  and 
government,  which  mark  a  social  existence,  extending  back- 
ward for  at  least  several  ages,  and  certainly,  to  a  time  long 
before  the  days  of  Abraham.  There  are  architectural  remains 
in  Egypt  that  have  outlived  the  touch  of  time's  hand  for  more 
than  thirty  centuries.  These  conclusively  show  that  the 
country  possessed  its  palaces,  propyla,  tombs,  and  temples,  at 
the  time  when  the  children  of  Israel,  under  the  successors  of 
Joshua,  were  contending  with  the  Canaanites  for  the  pos- 
session of  the  promised  land;  or  even  yet  earlier,  when  the 
children  of  Israel  were  slaves  in  Egypt.  But,  we  may  go 
back  further  still,  and  find  abundant  evidence  that  no  small 
degree  of  political  freedom,  as  well  as  a  long-continued  civili- 
zation, must  have  existed  among  the  Egyptians  long  before 
Abraham's  day.  And  with  this,  the  story  now  before  us,  as 
well  as  all  others  in  the  Bible  relating  to  Egypt,  will  be  found 
to  harmonize. 

2.  Lower  Egypt  was  then  dry. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  enter  minutely  into  a  geological 
discussion ;  or  to  attempt  a  scientific  solution  of  the  question, 
'  How  long  a  time  must  it  have  required  to  form  the  Delta  of 
the  Nile?'*    All  that  concerns  us  at  present  is  the  fact,  that  in 

*  The  whole  subject  of  the  formation  of  Deltas,  is  one  requiring  more  facts 
than  geology  has  yet  accumulated,  to  enable  scientific  men  to  speak  with  absolute 
certainty.  Other  causes  than  that  of  the  gradual  deposit  of  soil,  washed  down 
by  the  river,  are  to  be  examined.    Thus,  as  it  respects  the  Delta  of  the  Mississippi, 


ABRAHAM.  139 

A  braham's  day,  Lower  Egypt  was  dry,  and  habitable.  Facts, 
now  existing  in  Egypt,  would  seem  to  show  that  there  had 
been  ample  time  for  the  production  of  such  a  result.  The 
soil  of  Egypt  was,  doubtless,  originally  formed  in  great  part, 
by  the  earth  brought  down  by  the  river,  from  Abyssinia  and 
the  interior  of  Africa,  and  deposited  during  the  periodical 
annual  inundations.  From  the  same  cause,  in  the  progress 
of  years,  it  has  been  gradually  elevated.  There  are  towns 
and  buildings  which  we  know,  from  history,  to  have  been 
originally  built  on  mounds  above  the  reach  of  ordinary  inun- 
dations, that  are  now  so  much  below  the  level  of  the  river, 
that  they  are  regularly  overflowed ;  for  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  rise  in  the  bed  of  the  river  keeps  pace  with  the  extent 
of  every  fresh  deposit  on  the  adjacent  land. 

Thus,  the  ancient  Nilometer  at  Elephantine,  mentioned  by 
Strabo,  is  still  in  existence.  The  highest  measure  marked  on 
it  is  twenty-four  cubits.  At  this  day,  the  water,  in  its  greatest 
elevation,  rises  eight  feet  above  that  mark  ;  while  an  inscrip- 
tion on  the  wall,  made  in  the  third  century  of  our  era,  shows 
that  the  water  then  rose  but  one  foot  above  the  twenty-four 
cubit,  or  high  water  mark.  Here,  then,  is  a  difference  of 
elevation  of  seven  feet  in  about  sixteen  hundred  years :  i.  e. 
of  five  and  a  quarter  inches  in  a  century ;  and  there  is  inde- 
pendent testimony  to  show,  that  in  the  circumjacent  soil  the 

for  instance,  it  is  an  undoubted  fact,  that  new  land  successively  rises  and  dis- 
appears at  the  mouths  of  the  river,  from  upheavals  and  depressions,  occasioned  by 
subterraneous  agencies.  When,  in  1811,  New  Madrid,  on  the  Mississippi,  waa 
destroyed,  and  the  city  of  Caraccas  was  simultaneously  overthrown  by  the  same 
convulsion,  the  effects  and  agitation  about  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi,  it  is  said, 
were  such  as  to  indicate  that  the  locality  was  in  the  line  of  communication  by 
which  the  mighty  subterraneous  agent  reached  from  New  Madrid  to  Caraccas. 


140  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

rise  has  been  in  about  the  same  proportion.  There  are  isolated 
spots  where,  from  local  causes,  the  rise  of  the  soil  may  be 
more  or  less  than  this,  but  these  are  occasional  irregularities,  not 
affecting  the  general  result.  Of  course,  as  in  all  long  rivers 
that  form  Deltas,  the  strata  of  deposit  will  diminish  in  thick- 
ness as  the  river  approaches  the  sea ;  thus,  Sir  Gardner  Wil- 
kinson tells  us,  that  "  at  Elephantine,  the  land  has  been  raised 
about  nine  feet  in  seventeen  hundred  years,  at  Thebes,  about 
seven,  and  so  on  gradually  diminishing  to  the  mouth."  He 
also  indicates  the  ratio  of  gradual  diminution  by  the  state- 
ments, that  around  the  base  of  the  obelisk  of  Osirtasen,  at 
Heliopolis,  the  alluvial  soil  has  accumulated  to  the  height 
of  five  feet  ten  inches ;  and  that  around  a  monument — had 
one  been  erected  at  Elephantine,  when  the  obelisk  was 
reared — there  would  now  have  been  an  accumulation  of  about 
nineteen  feet. 

The  swell  of  the  river  varies  in  different  parts  of  its  chan- 
nel. In  Upper  Egypt  it  is  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  feet ;  at 
Cairo,  it  is  about  twenty-three  feet ;  in  the  northern,  or  most 
seaward  part  of  the  Delta,  it  is  not  more  than  four  feet. 
This  arises,  first,  from  the  breadth  of  the  inundation,  (the 
waters  spreading  over  a  large  extent  of  level  formation,)  and 
secondly,  from  the  fact  that  its  volume  in  the  river  is  dimin- 
ished by  the  numerous  artificial  channels,  all  over  the  country, 
into  which  it  is  conducted  for  purposes  of  irrigation ;  and  in 
which  channels  it  is  retained  after  the  river  has  subsided.  The 
inhabitants  of  Egypt  have,  with  great  labor,  cut  a  vast  num- 
ber of  canals  and  trenches  through  the  whole  extent  of  the 
land,  and  the  object  of  these  is  to  convey  the  waters  to  spots 
where  the  inundation  does  not  directly  extend. 

But  there  is  additional  evidence,  adduced  by  Qsborn,  in 


ABRAHAM. 


141 


support  of  the  fact  we  are  considering.  Herodotus  informs  us 
that  in  the  days  of  Menes,  (the  first  of  Egypt's  line  of  human 
monarchs,)  the  Delta  of  the  Nile  was  already  a  reclaimable 
marsh.  Now  let  us  inquire  if  there  be  any  data  on  which  to 
form  an  opinion  as  to  the  time  it  would  require  so  to  elevate 
the  land,  by  means  of  art  aiding  the  deposits  of  the  river,  as  to 
render  this  reclaimable  marsh  fit  for  occupancy.  Juvenal  in- 
forms us  that  about  1600  years  ago,  the  Nile  emptied  itself  by 
many  mouths ;  we  now  know  that  the  deposits  of  the  river 
have  filled  up  all  its  mouths  but  two.  If  then  1600  years 
were  sufficient  to  produce  the  effect  of  stopping  all  the  mouths 
but  two ;  and  if,  in  Menes's  day,  (who  was  confessedly,  ac- 
cording to  the  anti-Bible  school  of  "Egyptologists,"  many 
hundreds  of  years  before  Abraham,)  the  Delta  was  then  re- 
claimable ;  is  it  unreasonable  to  conclude  that  Lower  Egypt 
was  a  dry  country,  and  thickly  inhabited  when  Abraham  first 
saw  it  ? — We  are  unwilling  to  leave  this  subject  without  advert- 
ing to  the  testimony  it  incidentally  affords  to  the  point  in  proof 
of  which  Osborn  originally  adduced  it :  viz.,  that  Menes  (who 
we  readily  admit  lived  in  a  very  distant  period  from  the 
present)  did  not  live,  as  some  have  informed  us,  about  6000 
years  before  Christ ;  for  had  this  been  the  case,  if  Herodotus 
and  Juvenal  may  be  credited  in  their  statements,  the  Delta, 
instead  of  being  in  his  day,  a  reclaimable  marsh,  would  have 
been  an  expanse  of  deep  sea. 

But  there  is  still  another,  and  to  our  minds  most  conclusive 
proof  on  this  subject,  which  shows  "  that  the  Egypt  of  the 
Bible  is  Egypt  indeed,  not  a  fiction,  nor  an  imposture,  nor  a 
blunder— as  writers  of  the  Voltaire  school  would  persuade  the 
world — but  a  reality,  so  far  as  it  goes,  a  picture  copied  from 
actual  life." 


142  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

If  the  reader  will  turn  to  the  map  of  ancient  Egypt,  he 
will  find  that  on  that  branch  in  the  Delta,  which  empties  by 
the  Tanitic,  or,  as  Herodotus  terms  it,  the  Saitic  mouth,  stands 
Tanis,  not  far  from  the  sea.  This  place  is  known  in  Scripture 
by  the  name  of  Zoan.  In  Numbers  xiii.  22,  it  is  stated  that 
"  Hebron  was  built  seven  years  before  Zoan  in  Egypt."  Zoan, 
then,  we  remark  in  passing,  seems  to  have  been  proverbially 
ancient,  as  it  was  used  as  a  standard  of  reference,  to  indicate 
the  age  of  other  cities.  Now  we  have  but  to  ascertain  whether 
Hebron  existed  in  Abraham's  day.  To  this  the  answer  is,  that 
when  Abraham  reached  Canaan,  the  Scriptural  history  tells  us, 
he  found  Hebron  there ;  and  for  aught  that  is  known  to  the 
contrary,  it  might  then  have  been  standing  for  many  years. 

3.  The  kings  of  Egypt  were  then  known  by  the  title, 
Pharaoh. 

This  word  is  sometimes  used  in  Scripture,  as  if  it  were  a 
proper  name  ;  and  sometimes  the  phrase,  "  King  of  Egypt,"  is 
added  to  it.  Sometimes,  also,  the  real  proper  name,  as  it  may 
be  called,  is  added ;  thus  we  read  of  Pharaoh  Necho,  and 
Pharaoh  Hophra.  The  word  is  written  in  Hebrew,  Phrah. 
[nsiB,]  and  different  opinions  have  been  expressed  as  to  its  ori- 
gin. Josephus,  in  his  antiquities,  intimates  that  it  is  derived 
from  the  ancient  Egyptian  word,  ouro,  meaning  "  king  ;"  pre- 
fixing the  masculine  article,  in  Coptic,  it  becomes  p-onro,  "the 
king,"  or  ph-ouro,  whence  Pharaoh.  A  later,  and  probably 
more  correct  opinion,  derives  it  from  the  Egyptian  Avord  Phra, 
"  the  sun,"  which  both  Rosellini  and  Lepsius  have  remarked, 
is  often  written  hieroglyphically,  on  the  monuments,  over  the 
heads  of  the  kings,  where  it  is  represented  by  the  hawk  and 
globe,  or  by  the  symbol  of  the  sun.     Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson 


ABRAHAM.  143 

thus  writes :  "  I  have  frequently  had  occasion  to  notice  the 
true  meaning  and  purport  of  this  name.  I  shall,  therefore, 
only  observe,  that  it  is  written  in  Hebrew,  Phrah,  and  is  taken 
from  the  Egyptian  word  Pire  or  Phre,  (pronounced  Phra,)  signi- 
fying the  sun,  and  represented,  in  hieroglyphics,  by  the  hawk 
and  globe,  or  sun,  over  the  royal  banners.  It  was  through  the 
well-known  system  of  analogies  that  the  king  obtained  this 
title,  being  the  chief  of  earthly,  as  the  sun  was  of  heavenly 
bodies.  But  the  word  is  not  derived  from,  or  related  to  ouro, 
"  king,"  as  Josephus  supposes.  Phouro  is  like  Pharaoh  ;  but 
the  name  is  Phrah,  in  Hebrew,  and  Pharaoh  is  an  unwarranted 
corruption." 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  two  derivations  are  quite 
reconcileable  ;  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  only  possible,  but  highly 
probable,  that  the  Egyptians,  in  conformity  with  a  very  com- 
mon usage  among  modern  oriental  sovereigns,  should  make 
the  name  of  the  sun  a  royal  title,  and  that  thence,  custom 
should  make  it  equivalent  to  the  word  "  king."  But,  at  pres- 
ent, our  business  is  with  the  fact  that,  in  Abraham's  day,  the 
monarch  of  Egypt  was  known  by  the  title  of  Pharaoh ;  and 
that  the  monuments  clearly  show  that  it  was  the  generic  term 
applied  to  all  the  native  sovereigns  of  Egypt.  As  far  as  the 
Bible  conveys  any  information  on  the  subject,  it  tells  exactly 
the  same  story.  We  leave  this  point  here,  for  the  present,  as 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  resume  it  on  a  future  page. 

4.  Domestic  servitude  then  existed  in  Egypt . 

Pharaoh  gave  to  Abraham  men-servants  and  maid-ser- 
vants, according  to  our  history.  Had  Egypt  at  that  day 
household  slaves?  It  is  difficult,  in  tracing  the  history  of 
slavery,  to  say  when  it  did  not  exist.     We  meet  with  it  in  the 


144  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

earliest  written  record  we  have  of  our  race ;  and  indeed  we 
are  aware  of  its  prevalence,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  among 
all  early  nations.  In  some  instances,  in  the  Bible,  the  word 
servant  may,  and  we  think  does,  mean  some  humble  friend, 
or  dependent,  or  disciple  performing  servile  offices ;  but  the 
mass  of  those  called  servants  in  Scripture  were  absolute  and 
perpetual  slaves.  They  generally  were  either  captives  taken 
in  war,  or  were  foreigners  that  had  been  purchased.  They, 
with  their  descendants,  were  considered  the  property  of  their 
masters,  and,  as  such,  might  be  exchanged  or  sold;  nay, 
among  some  nations,  a  power  of  life  and  death  over  his  unfor- 
tunate slave  was  confided  to  his  master.  Abraham's  servants 
were,  we  apprehend,  slaves :  but  the  revolting  circumstances 
attending  slavery  in  some  of  its  exhibitions,  were  generally 
unknown  among  the  early  orientals.  The  slaves  were  rather 
deemed,  and  treated,  as  humble  members  of  the  family; 
though  to  this  there  were  doubtless,  in  some  instances,  cruel 
exceptions.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  case,  however,  as 
to  the  extent  of  a  master's  power,  servitude  of  some  kind,  and 
a  right  of  alienation,  are  distinctly  declared.  The  monuments 
show  us  the  existence  of  slavery.  "  From  them  we  find " 
(says  Taylor)  "  that  the  mistress  of  a  mansion  was  very  rigid 
in  enforcing  her  authority  over  her  female  domestics.  We  see 
these  unfortunate  beings  trembling  and  cringing  before  their 
superiors,  beaten  with  rods  by  the  overseers,  and  sometimes 
threatened  with  a  formidable  whip,  wielded  by  the  lady  of 
the  mansion  herself."  In  other  cases,  the  relation  subsisting 
between  the  mistress  and  her  slaves  appears  to  be  of  a  gentler 
and  more  affectionate  character.  In  a  tomb  at  Thebes  is  a 
representation,  copied  by  Wilkinson,  of  a  lady  enjoying  the 
bath,  who  is  waited  on  by  four  female  servants,  where  nothing 


ABRAHAM.  145 

appears  to  indicate  any  other  feeling  than  that  of  mutual  kind- 
ness, and,  on  the  part  of  the  attendants,  respectful  affection. 

5.  Tliere  was  famine  in  Canaan,  and  abundance  in  Egypt. 

Egypt  in  early  times  was  regarded  as  the  granary  of  west- 
ern Asia.  It  owes  its  fertility  to  the  periodical  inundations  of 
the  Nile ;  these  are,  of  course,  the  consequence  of  the  rains  in 
the  remote  country  in  which  the  river  takes  its  rise,  or  through 
which  it  passes  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course ;  for  it  is  the 
peculiarity  of  Egypt  that  it  does  not  depend  for  its  fertility,  as 
most  other  lands  do,  on  local  rains ;  of  which,  as  we  have 
already  stated,  it  may  be  said  to  have  comparatively  none. 
It  may  therefore  be,  that  a  want  of  local  rains  in  Canaan 
would  produce  a  scarcity  there  ;  while  in  the  adjacent  region 
of  Lower  Egypt,  overflowed  by  reason  of  rain  in  a  far-distant 
and  mountainous  land,  there  would  be  abundance.  Such,  we 
believe,  is  at  this  day  sometimes  the  case ;  Egypt  is  fertile,, 
while  local  causes  occasion  more  or  less  of  dearth  in  Canaan. 

It  sometimes  happens,  though  rarely,  that  there  is  want  in 
Egypt ;  but  we  will  not  now  dwell  on  this,  as  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  speak  of  it,  more  particularly,  hereafter.  The 
coexistence  of  want  in  Canaan,  and  abundance  in  Egypt,  is 
thus  seen  to  be  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  natural  pheno- 
mena of  the  country. 

6.  Sarah  was  fair,  and  nsed  no  covering  or  veil  over  her  face. 

Sarah  was  a  native  of  Mesopotamia ;  and  from  the  com- 
plexions of  different  nations  as  painted  on  the  monuments,  we 
learn  that  the  Egyptians  were  not  so  dark  as  the  Nubians  and 
Ethiopians ;  but  were  of  a  browner  tinge  than  the  Asiatics. 

Hence  "  the  Egyptians  beheld  the  woman,,  that  she  was  very 
10 


146  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

fair."  We  read,  too,  that  "  the  princes  of  Pharaoh  also  saw 
her."  Hence  she  must  have  been  unveiled.  This  is  in 
accordance  with  what  we  learn  from  the  monuments ;  and, 
though  seemingly  a  small  matter,  is  yet  valuable  for  the  inci- 
dental testimony  it  affords  to  the  fact  that  the  writer  of  our 
history,  whoever  he  may  have  been,  knew  well  the  fashions 
of  Egypt  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  and  described  things  as 
they  were.  Oriental  women  generally  veil  their  faces  in  pub- 
lic ;  and  out  of  Egypt,  such  was  the  custom  from  the  earliest 
times  :  but  in  Egypt,  such  was  not  the  fashion  until  after  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Persians.  In  the  reign  of  the 
Pharaohs,  as  the  monuments  abundantly  show,  the  women 
exposed  their  faces,  and  were  permitted  to  enjoy  as  much 
liberty  as  the  ladies  of  modern  Europe.  This  was  the  result 
of  an  advanced  state  of  civilization. 

We  have  numerous  illustrations  on  the  walls  of  Egypt, 
showing  the  habits  of  social  life  among  the  ancient  inhabi- 
tants. Thus,  in  the  representation  of  an  entertainment,  we 
may  see  the  ladies  and  gentlemen  sometimes  assembled  in  the 
same  apartment,  and  mingling  together  with  all  the  freedom 
of  modern  social  intercourse.  The  children  also,  instead  of 
being  shut  up  in  the  harem,  according  to  present  oriental 
custom,  are  introduced  into  the  company,  and  are  depicted 
as  sitting  by  the  mother's  side  or  on  the  father's  knee.  In  fact, 
no  ancient  nation  allowed  to  its  females  greater  luxuries  and 
privileges  than  were  granted  to  the  Egyptian  women.  Their 
dresses  were  exceedingly  rich  and  costly.  As  has  been  inti- 
mated by  Mr.  Taylor,  the  inventory  of  female  ornaments, 
furnished  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  (ch.  iii.  18-23,)  might  be 
made  from  an  inspection  of  the  monuments.  We  see  on 
them   "the  bravery  of  their  tinkling  ornaments  about  their 


ABRAHAM. 


147 


feet,  and  their  cauls,  and  their  round  tires,  like  the  moon ; 
the  chains  and  the  bracelets,  and  the  mufflers ;  the  bonnets 
and  the  ornaments  of  the  legs,  and  the  headbands,  and  the 
tablets,  and  the  ear-rings ;  the  rings  and  nose-jewels,  the 
changeable  suits  of  apparel,  and  the  mantles,  and  the  wim- 
ples, and  the  crisping-pins  ;  the  glasses  (mirrors),  and  the  fine 
linen,  and  the  hoods,  and  the  veils."  Some  of  the  representa- 
tions of  entertainments,  on  the  monuments,  are  not  a  little 
amusing ;  and  certainly  indicate  a  state  of  female  freedom, 
quite  as  liberal  as  could  have  been  desired.  The  ladies  are 
sometimes  to  be  seen  engaged  in  an  animated  discussion  on 
the  respective  merits  of  their  ear-rings  and  the  arrangement 
of  their  plaited  hair,  and  exhibiting  a  characteristic  rivalry. 
Sometimes,  too,  may  be  seen  unfortunate  ladies  paying  the 
penalty  of  excess  in  wine,  and  evidently  unable  "  to  carry 
their  liquor  discreetly."  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  supplies  us 
with  a  representation,  from  Thebes,  and  thus  describes  it. 
"  Some  call  the  servants  to  support  them  as  they  sit,  others, 
with  difficulty  prevent  themselves  from  falling  on  those  be- 
hind them ;  a  basin  is  brought  too  late  by  a  reluctant  servant, 


Servant  callrcl  to  oupport  her  mistress.  —  Thebes. 


148 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


and  the  faded  flower,  which  is  ready  to  drop  from  their  heated 
hands,  is  intended  to  be  characteristic  of  their  own  sensa- 
tions." 


A  party  of  Egyptian  ladies. — Thebes. 


7.  Pharaoh  wished  to  place  Sarah  in  his  harem. 

To  this  it  has  been  objected,  that  Herodotus  has  stated 
that  each  Egyptian  had  but  one  wife.  This  was  true  of  the 
practice  of  the  common  people,  of  whom  Herodotus  was  then 
speaking ;  but  the  law  allowed  more ;  as  Diodorus  informs 
us  that,  "  among  the  Egyptians,  the  priests  marry  only  one 
woman,  but  the  rest  of  the  men,  each  one  as  many  as  he 
pleases."  The  difference  is  merely  between  what  the  law 
permitted,  and  what  were  the  usages  of  the  country.  Dio- 
dorus states  the  first,  and  Herodotus  the  last.  The  same 
state  of  things  still  exists  at  the  East,  for,  though  polygamy 
is  permitted  to  the  Moslem,  yet  it  is  not  deemed  reputable  to 
have  more  than  one  wife.  "  But,"  (says  Sir  Gardner  Wilkin- 
son,) "  though  the  Egyptians  generally  confined  themselves  to 
one  wife,  they,  like  the  Jews  and  other  Eastern  nations,  both 
of  ancient  and  modern  times,  scrupled  not  to  admit  other 
inmates  to  their  harem,  most  of  whom  appear  to  have  been 


ABRAHAM. 


149 


foreigners,  either  taken  in  war,  or  brought  to  Egypt  to  be  sold 
as  slaves.  These  women  were  white  or  black  slaves,  accord- 
ing to  the  countries  from  which  they  were  brought."  The 
monuments  afford  evidence  of  this.  Below  we  give  repre- 
sentations taken  from  Thebes ;  the  first  group  is  of  white 
slaves,  of  whom  the  scribe  is  taking  account. 


From  Thebes. 

We  have  also  the  following,  where  the  slaves  are  black. 


From  Thcbeo 


150  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Generally  speaking,  the  blacks  were  employed  merely  as 
domestics.  The  whites  also  officiated  as  servants,  but  held  a 
rank  above  the  black  slaves.  Wilkinson  is  of  opinion  that  the 
women  represented  at  Medinet  Aboo,  attending  upon  Remeses, 
were  of  this  class  of  persons,  and,  at  all  events,  not  the  wives 
of  the  monarch. 

It  was  for  the  purpose  of  being  introduced  into  the  harem 
that  Pharaoh  took  Sarah  from  Abraham  ;  and  here  one  cannot 
help  being  struck  with  the  perfect  orientalism  of  the  whole 
proceeding.  We  find  in  the  Scriptures  accounts  of  Abraham's 
dealings  with  the  kings  of  Siddim,  the  king  of  Gerar,  and 
others,  in  which  the  patriarch  stands  seemingly  on  the  ground 
of  an  equal  with  these  rulers.  He  was,  therefore,  of  some 
note  ;  yet,  notwithstanding  this,  when  he  comes  into  Egypt, 
his  position  is  one  of  such  marked  inferiority,  that  we  can 
account  for  it  only  on  the  supposition  that  Egypt  was  the 
most  powerful  nation  then  known,  and  resistance  to  its  iron 
hand  of  despotism  was  useless.  At  any  rate,  here  is  the 
case  of  one,  who  was  no  subject  of  the  Egyptian  king,  but  a 
newly -arrived  stranger  of  distinction,  toward  whom  is  at  once 
exercised  the  most  offensive  privilege  of  oriental  despotism. 
We  know  that,  even  to  this  day,  eastern  despots  act  thus  with 
reference  to  their  own  subjects,  and  transplant  into  the  harem 
whomsoever  they  please :  this  instance  shows  that  the  prac- 
tice is  of  great  antiquity ;  and  from  some  cause,  Abraham, 
who  never  could  willingly  have  assented  to  the  arrangement, 
is  compelled  to  submit  in  silence.  Such  an  invasion  of  the 
sanctity  of  private  life  could  occur  only  in  the  East ;  and  the 
whole  proceeding  is  in  perfect  keeping  with  the  known  habits 
of  the  Eastern  people. 


ABRAHAM.  151 

8.  There  was  no  dislike  of  Abraham 's  pastoral  occupation 
shown  on  this  visit  to  Egypt. 

This  is  an  important  particular,  as  will  be  seen  more  fully 
when  we  come  to  speak  of  incidents  in  the  life  of  Joseph. 
"  It  would  be  a  valuable  piece  of  information,"  (says  Kitto,) 
"  to  know  what  king  or  dynasty  reigned  in  Egypt  at  the  time 
of  Abram's  visit.  But  the  sacred  narrative  does  not  mention 
any  king  of  Egypt  by  his  proper  name,  till  after  the  time  of 
Solomon ;  and  the  Egyptian  chronology  at,  and  for  some  time 
after,  this  early  date,  is  still  involved  in  much  uncertainty  and 
confusion,  notwithstanding  the  light  which  has  been  thrown 
on  the  general  subject  by  the  progress  made  in  deciphering 
the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions."* 

The  question  as  to  who  was  the  king  at  the  period  of 
Abraham's  visit  becomes  important  here,  when  we  find  that 
afterward,  in  Joseph's  time,  "every  shepherd  was  an  abomi- 
nation to  the  Egyptians."  The  inquiry  arises,  why  were  not 
shepherds  an  abomination  when  Abraham  was  in  Egypt? 
The  answer  to  this  involves  a  somewhat  obscure  portion  of 
Egyptian  history,  which,  with  as  much  brevity  as  is  in  our 
power,  we  will  endeavor  to  make  as  plain  as  we  can  to  our 
readers. 

Before  we  enter  upon  our  attempt  to  do  this,  we  would 
remark,  that  there  are  some  who  have  undertaken  to  answer 
the  proposed  inquiry,  without  reference  to  any  part  of  Egyp- 
tian history.  Some  writers  have  supposed  that  the  aversion 
in  Egypt  to  shepherds  arose  from  the  animal  worship  of  these 
ancient  people  ;  and  that  they  disliked  the  shepherds,  because 

•  This  was  written  in  1841.  Whatever  may  have  been  discovered  since,  (as 
to  which  large  promises  have  been  made,)  nothing  has  been  made  public,  to  affect 
the  truth  of  what  is  said  in  the  quotation.  To  the  first  part  of  this  remark  the 
work  of  Nolan,  published  in  1848,  may  form  an  exception. 


152  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

ihey  fed  on  animals  which,  in  their  view,  were  sacred.  This 
scarcely  affords  a  satisfactory  solution ;  for  the  Egyptians 
themselves  by  no  means  concurred  in  their  animal  deities. 
Almost  every  district  had,  in  this  matter,  a  different  usage. 
In  one,  they  worshipped  goats,  and  ate  sheep ;  in  another,  the 
sheep  was  deified,  and  the  goat  was  eaten.  In  some  parts, 
crocodiles  were  venerated  ;  in  others,  they  were  slain  without 
mercy.  In  truth,  of  the  larger  animals,  the  cow  was  the  only 
one  deemed  sacred  by  the  Egyptians ;  and  the  nomade  shep- 
herds do  not  kill  cows  for  food.  There  was,  indeed,  the 
worship  of  the  bull  Apis,  but  this  was  confined  to  a  particular 
animal.  Bulls  and  oxen  generally  were  not  made  objects  of 
worship ;  and  the  sculptures  show,  in  some  instances,  the 
sacrifice  of  bulls.  We  know  that  the  Egyptian  priests  ate 
beef  and  veal.  If  any  prejudice  against  shepherds  existed 
on  account  of  the  Egyptian  reverence  for  animals,  it  was 
probably  connected  almost  entirely  with  the  cow ;  but  we 
doubt  its  existence  on  this  ground. 

Heeren  intimates  that  the  aversion  to  shepherds  resulted, 
not  from  their  occupation  as  herdsmen,  but  from  the  fact  that 
the  class  of  cattle  rearers  were  addicted  to  lawless  habits  and 
pursuits,  which  would  make  them  objects  of  aversion  to  a 
refined  and  civilized  people  like  the  Egyptians.  It  was 
nomade  shepherds  whom  they  abominated,  not  shepherds 
generally ;  for  they  had  such  among  themselves,  taking  care 
of  the  cattle  which  we  know  the  Egyptians  had.  But  the 
habits  of  nomades  were  turbulent  and  aggressive  ;  they  were 
difficult  of  control  by  law,  and  felt  themselves  to  be  independ- 
ent of  all  the  wholseome  restraints  of  a  well-organized  state 
of  society.  They  were  wanderers,  free  and  bold,  and  wher- 
ever they  planted  themselves  on  the  borders  of  civilization, 


ABRAHAM.  153 

were  apt,  for  the  time,  to  prove  very  disagreeable  neighbors. 
Hence  the  ruling  priestly  caste,  among  the  Egyptians,  ex- 
tended to  them  no  countenance,  but  sought,  rather,  to  put 
them  down,  and  forbade  the  Egyptians  to  eat  with  them. — 
This  conjecture  of  Heeren  has  been  deemed  plausible  by  some 
able  men ;  but  we  would,  with  all  diffidence,  submit,  that  a 
much  more  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  aversion  to  shep- 
herds, is  to  be  found  in  early  Egyptian  history ;  and  to  that 
we  now  proceed. 

It  seems  to  be  one  of  the  best  established  facts  in  the  early 
history  of  Egypt,  that  its  lower  portion  was  for  many  years 
under  the  dominion  of  a  race  of  jmstoral  nomades,  (known 
as  the  Hyksos,  or  shepherd  kings,)  while  the  upper  part  of 
the  country  was  under  the  native  sovereigns.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, to  be  concealed,  that  any  such  pastoral  dominion  is 
denied  by  some ;  among  whom  are  to  be  numbered  Perizon, 
Hengstenberg,  and  others.  Their  denial  results  from  their 
distrust  of  the  authenticity  of  Manetho,  and  from  the  strange 
mingling  together,  in  the  narrative  under  his  name,  of  facts 
well  known  in  Hebrew  history,  with  certain  Egyptian  stories. 
This  has  subjected  his  statement  to  suspicion ;  and  yet,  with 
a  majority  of  the  writers  on  this  subject,  we  are  disposed  to 
think  that  Manetho's  account  is  not  entirely  to  be  rejected  as 
untrue ;  though  it  is  mixed  up  with  some  very  evident  false- 
hood, which  may  easily  be  detected  and  separated. 

This  is  Manetho's  story,  as  it  is  preserved  in  a  fragment 
by  Josephus  :  "  In  the  reign  of  King  Timeeus,  there  came  up 
from  the  East  men  of  an  ignoble  race,  who  had  the  confidence 
to  invade  our  country ;  and  easily  subdued  it  without  a  battle, 
burning  the  cities,  demolishing  the  temples,  slaying  the  men, 
and  reducing  the  women  and  children  to  slavery.    They  made 


154  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Salatis,  one  of  themselves,  king.  He  reigned  at  Memphis,  and 
made  the  upper  and  lower  regions  [of  Egypt]  tributary ;  gar- 
risoned fit  places,  particularly  in  the  eastern  frontier,  through 
fear  the  Assyrians  should  invade  the  country.  He  rebuilt  and 
strongly  fortified  the  city  of  Avaris,  in  the  Sa'ite  nome,  upon 
the  east  of  the  Bubastite  channel,  and  garrisoned  it  with  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  as  a  treasure  city.  He 
reigned  nineteen  years."  Manetho  then  gives  the  names  of 
five  successors ;  the  whole  number  of  years  occupied  by  the 
six  kings  being,  according  to  the  version  of  Manetho  by  Jose- 
phus,  284 ;  and  according  to  that  by  Eusebius,  250. 

He  then  informs  us  that  the  16th  dynasty,  which  he 
calls  shepherd  kings,  was  composed  of  thirty-two  sovereigns, 
who  reigned  518  years  ;  and  that  the  17th,  composed  of  forty- 
three  shepherd  kings,  and  forty-three  (contemporary)  Theban 
kings,  reigned  151  years ;  and,  in  reference  to  these  dynasties, 
he  thus  writes : — 

"  All  this  nation  was  called  Hyksos,  or  shepherd  kings  ;  for 
the  first  syllable,  Hyk,  in  the  sacred  dialect,  means  a  king,  and 
sos,  in  the  vulgar  tongue,  a  shepherd  :  some  say  they  were 
Arabs.  These  shepherd  kings  and  their  descendants  retained 
possession  of  Egypt  511  years." 

He  then  proceeds,  and  thus  explains  the  removal  of  these 
Hyksos : — 

"  The  kings  of  the  Thebaid  and  the  other  (i.  e.  Lower) 
Egypt  rose  against  the  shepherds,  and  after  a  long  war,  Alis- 
phragmuthosis  drove  the  shepherds,  or  captives  as  they  were 
sometimes  called,  out  of  the  other  parts  of  Egypt,  and  confined 
them  to  the  district  of  Avaris,  which  they  strongly  fortified  to 
protect  their  property.  Amosis  or  Thummosis,  his  son,  besieged 
them  in  their  stronghold  with  480,000  men  ;  reduced  them  to 


ABRAHAM.  15."5 

capitulate,  and  they  left  Egypt  in  number  240,000,  and 
marched  through  the  desert  toward  Syria,  and  built  the  city 
of  Jerusalem,  in  the  country  now  called  Judea,  which  they 
fortified  against  the  Assyrians." 

Thus  far,  we  have,  at  least,  an  intelligible  story :  whether 
it  be  probably  true,  in  every  particular,  is  to  be  seen.  In  the 
main  features  of  an  invasion  of  Egypt  by  a  race  of  shepherds 
from  the  East,  of  their  dominion  in  the  lower  part  of  the  coun- 
try for  many  years,  and  of  their  final  expulsion,  the  story  is 
probably  true ;  but  the  invaders  were  not  Arabs ;  nor  would 
we  vouch  for  the  entire  accuracy  of  the  details  as  to  numbers, 
<fec,  given  by  Manetho.  Hengstenberg  objects  to  the  whole 
story  as  being  a  fabrication,  and  one  of  his  grounds  for  reject- 
ing it  calls  for  a  passing  remark.  The  word  Hyksos,  accord- 
ing to  Manetho,  is  as  to  the  first  syllable,  derived  from  the 
sacred  dialect,  and  as  to  the  last,  from  the  vulgar  tongue : 
Hengstenberg  says  there  is  nowhere  else  found  any  such  union 
of  a  sacred  and  vulgar  dialect  in  Egypt.  Hence  he  infers  the 
ignorance  of  the  pretended  Manetho  as  to  the  Egyptian  lan- 
guage, in  confounding  the  difference  between  sacred  and  com- 
mon writing,  with  a  difference  between  sacred  and  common 
language.  He  also,  on  the  authority  of  Jablonski,  says  that 
the  word  Hyk  is  found  where  it  cannot  mean  a  king.  In  the 
first  of  these  reasons  there  would  be  force  were  it  certainly 
true  ;  but  we  are  not  sure  that  there  is  not  a  difference  between 
the  ancient  sacred  and  vulgar  language.  It  is  true,  as  Bunsen 
has  remarked,  that  "  all  sacred  language  is  essentially  nothing 
but  an  earlier  stage  of  the  popular  dialect,  preserved  by  the 
sacred  books ;"  and  he  illustrates  it  by  the  case  of  the  Hebrew 
with  the  so-called  Chaldee ;  the  old  Hellenic  in  the  Greek 
church,  with  the  modern  Greek,  &c. :  but  he  adds,  "it  does 


156  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

not  follow  that  the  more  modem  idiom  [the  vulgar]  is  every 
where  the  offspring  of  the  sacred  language.  The  '  common 
dialect '  of  the  Egyptians,  therefore,  is  not  necessarily  the  im- 
mediate descendant  of  the  sacred  language  of  this  nation." 
As  to  the  word  Hyk,  we  presume  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it 
does  mean  king ;  though  it  may  also  mean  something  else  : 
there  are  words  in  our  own,  and  every  language,  with  a  double 
meaning.  But  leaving  this  out  of  view,  the  main  features  of 
Manetho's  narrative  are  worthy  of  belief,  because,  if  we  mis- 
take not,  they  find  some  confirmation  from  the  monuments,  if 
the  inscriptions  be  not,  as  is  often  the  case,  overlooked.  The 
tomb  of  one  of  the  officers  of  Amosis,  (who,  according  to 
Manetho,  expelled  the  shepherds,)  has  been  found  at  Thebes. 
An  inscription  on  it  implies  that  the  war  against  the  shepherds 
was  severe,  and  that  many  hard  battles  were  fought  before 
they  were  expelled. 

The  shepherd  kings,  Manetho  tells  us,  reigned  at  Memphis, 
and  he  gives  the  names  of  the  first  six.  Two  of  these  names, 
Aphophis  and  Assis,  have  been  discovered  in  the  burial-place 
of  ancient  Memphis.  The  tomb  of  Assis,  is  said  by  its  dis- 
coverer, M.  l'Hote,  to  be  executed  in  cavo-relievo,  with  surpass- 
ing skill. 

Rosellini  gives  a  plate  of  the  conquests  by  Sethos,  taken 
from  the  walls  of  Karnac,  which  helps  us  much  toward  a  dis- 
covery of  who  these  shepherd  kings  were.  The  name  of  one 
of  the  string  of  captives,  translated  from  the  hieroglyphics,  is 
the  Coptic  word  shOs,  which  means  shepherd,  and  is  what 
Josephus,  in  his  version  of  Manetho,  writes  in  Greek,  2coq, 
[sOs.]  If  we  can  ascertain  the  locality  of  this  representation 
of  a  conquered  people,  thus  delineated  in  the  triumphs  of 
Sethos,  it  will  aid  us  in   settling  who   were   the   shepherd 


ABRAHAM.  157 

invaders.  Turning  to  the  first  picture  of  the  war  of  Sethos 
with  the  sh6s,  on  Rosellini's  plate,  we  find  the  representation 
of  a  sanguinary  defeat  of  the  sh6s,  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  a  fort  on  a  high  hill,  covered  with  trees,  and  with  a  lake  on 
one  side  of  it.  On  this  fort  is  inscribed  in  hieroglyphics,  '  the 
fort  (stronghold)  of  the  land  of  Canaan?  The  shepherds 
then,  who  invaded  Egypt,  were,  as  Josephus  has  said,  Canaan- 
ites,  and  not  Arabs,  as  Manetho  writes. 

We  therefore  reach  the  conclusion  that,  in  substance,  the 
narrative  of  Manetho,  no  matter  by  whom  written,  is  correct. 
There  was  a  race  of  shepherds  who  invaded  and  conquered 
Lower  Egypt,  ruled  over  it  for  many  years,  and  were  finally 
expelled  by  the  sovereigns  of  Upper  Egypt. 

We  now  return  to  the  residue  of  Manetho's  story.  The 
dynasty  founded  by  Amosis  (who  expelled  the  shepherds) 
consisted  of  sixteen  kings,  who,  together,  reigned  two  hundred 
and  sixty-three  years.  The  last  of  these  kings,  Amenophis, 
or  one  of  his  immediate  predecessors,  "  being  warned  by  the 
priests  to  cleanse  the  whole  country  of  lepers  and  unclean 
persons,  gathered  them  together,  and  sent  them  to  the  number 
of  80,000,  to  work  at  the  quarries  on  the  east  side  of  the  Nile. 
And  there  were  among  them  some  learned  priests  equally 
affected  with  leprosy.  When  they  had  been  for  some  time  in 
that  miserable  state,  the  king  set  apart  for  them  the  city  of 
Avaris,  which  had  been  left  empty  by  the  shepherds.  When 
they  had  possession  of  the  city  they  revolted,  and  made  Osar- 
siph,  a  priest  of  Heliopolis,  their  ruler,  who  afterward  changed 
his  name  to  Moses.  He  made  many  laws  directly  opposed  to 
the  customs  of  the  Egyptians,  forbidding  them  to  worship 
their  gods  and  sacred  animals.  He  sent  ambassadors  to 
Jerusalem,  to  the   shepherds,  whom  Tethmosis  had  driven 


158  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

out,  who  gladly  sent  200,000  men  to  their  assistance,  in  hope 
of  regaining  the  dominion  of  Egypt.  Amenophis  at  first  re- 
treated to  Ethiopia,  whose  king  was  his  friend ;  but  returning 
with  a  great  force,  slew  many  of  the  shepherds,  and  pursued 
the  rest  into  Syria." 

This  is  Manetho's  account,  and  the  reader  will  perceive  at 
once  how  he  has  confounded  the  affairs  of  the  Jews  with  the 
shepherds.  It  is  this  statement  which  has  exposed  Manetho 
to  the  strong  suspicions  of  some.  For  ourselves,  we  venture 
to  express  the  opinion,  that  the  whole  passage  is  unworthy  of 
confidence.  Bunsen,  in  his  anxiety  to  save  Manetho,  says 
that  "he  relates  it  as  a  mere  popular  legend."  Manetho, 
however,  does  not  say  so,  and  we  do  not  believe  he  ever  re- 
lated it  at  all.  To  us  it  seems — we  speak  with  deference 
toward  others  who  differ  from  us — that  there  was  a  genuine 
Manetho,  who  probably  was  a  man  of  character;  that  it  is 
also  probable  he  preserved  some  of  the  historical  incidents  of 
his  country ;— but  there  was  also  a  spurious  Manetho,  that 
lived  afterward ;  one  who  stole  a  respected  name,  and  made 
it  a  cover  for  his  falsehoods.  It  is  quite  probable  that,  some 
matters  recorded  by  the  genuine  Manetho  may  have  come 
down  to  us  in  the  fragments  under  his  name  ;  but  those 
fragments  contain,  also,  that  which  we  believe  he  did  not 
write ;  and  this  passage  we  think  is  not  his.  The  obvious 
intention  of  the  passage  is  to  cast  opprobrium  upon  the  Jews, 
as  unclean  and  leprous  persons ;  and  this  passage  appears  at 
a  very  suspicious  period.  It  purports  to  be  the  work  of  a 
Manetho  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
Now  it  was  in  the  reign  of  this  very  king  that  the  septuagint 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  from  Hebrew  into  Greek,  was  made ; 
of  course,  the  whole  true  story  of  the  bondage  and  exode  of 


ABRAHAM.  159 

the  Jews  was  made  accessible,  and  could  not  but  attract  the 
attention  of  the  learned  in  Egypt ;  and  it  was  a  story  that 
reflected  little  honor  on  the  Egyptians.  Hence,  to  gratify 
national  conceit,  and  wipe  off  national  disgrace,  it  became 
necessary  to  put  forth  another  version,  more  soothing  to 
Egyptian  pride,  and  more  creditable  to  Egyptian  character. 
The  Jews  are  accordingly  made  odious  as  lepers,  and  we  are 
furnished  with  a  distorted  picture  of  the  residence  of  the 
Hebrews  in,  and  their  exode  from  Egypt,  for  the  purpose  of 
vindicating  the  conduct  of  the  Egyptian  government. 

But  whether  the  passage  be  from  the  pen  of  the  true 
Manetho,  or  of  one  who  put  forth  falsehoods  under  his  name, 
is,  for  our  present  purpose,  comparatively  unimportant ;  for  if 
written  by  the  real  Manetho,  and  if  founded,  as  we  are  told 
his  writings  are,  on  ancient  Egyptian  records ;  then  it  must 
follow  that,  according  to  the  ancient  records  of  Egypt  itself, 
there  was  a  man  called  Moses,  of  a  different  race  from  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  that  he  lived  in  Egypt,  that  he  taught  his  countrymen  to 
shun  idolatry,  and  that,  finally,  he  and  they  left  Egypt  together. 
Leper  or  no  leper,  these  facts  at  least  are  distinctly  and  une- 
quivocally recorded ;  and  thus  the  ancient  Egyptian  records 
bear  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  Bible.  Again,  if  we 
suppose  the  passage  to  have  been  the  production  of  a  spu- 
rious Manetho,  then  it  is  obvious,  that  long  after  the  events 
of  the  bondage  and  exodus  of  the  Hebrews,  there  must  have 
existed  some  traditionary  knowledge,  at  least  in  Egypt,  of 
these  great  events ;  and  that  tradition  must  have  preserved 
the  facts  above  enumerated,  and  contained  in  the  statement 
itself,  (for  we  cannot  suppose  that  writer  to  have  merely 
drawn  on  his  invention,  and  yet  to  have  come  so  near  historic 
truth ;)  and  we  respectfully  submit  whether  such  a  tradition 


160  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

could  possibly  have  existed  for  centuries  in  Egypt,  without  a 
basis  of  fact,  as  to  its  grand  features.  Whether,  therefore,  the 
ancient  records  of  Egypt,  or  centuries  of  tradition,  preserved 
the  facts,  that  Moses  lived  there,  that  he  and  his  people  were 
not  Egyptians,  that  he  denounced  idolatry,  and  at  last,  that 
all  left  the  country  together,  is  quite  unimportant ;  for  in  either 
case  we  are  furnished  with  strong  and  undesigned  testimony 
for  the  truth  of  at  least  one  part  of  the  Bible. 

But  this  is  not  all.  Manetho,  without  intending  it,  has 
furnished  another  example  of  incidental  proof  corroborating, 
in  a  striking  manner,  the  Scriptures.  The  reader  will  remem- 
ber, that  he  tells  us  the  first  shepherd  kings  were  very  much 
afraid  of  an  invasion  from  the  Assyrians.  Now  it  so  happens, 
that  at  the  very  date  of  the  shepherd  kings,  (which  we  will 
demonstrate  directly,)  we  learn  from  the  Bible,  that  the  Assy- 
rians had  actually  established  their  power  on  this  side  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  had  even  conquered  part  of  Palestine. 

Returning  from  this  digression,  which  has  been  made  for 
the  purpose  of  presenting  the  incidental  testimony  for  the 
Scriptures,  unconsciously  furnished  by  Manetho ;  we  proceed 
to  the  ultimate  object  we  have  had  in  view  in  dwelling  thus 
long,  and  we  fear  somewhat  tediously,  on  the  shepherd  kings. 
That  object  is  this.  If  Abraham,  on  his  visit  to  Egypt,  was 
not  an  "abomination"  as  being  a  shepherd ;  we  mean  now  to 
show  that  it  was  because  that  part  of  Egypt  in  which  he  was, 
was  ruled  by  shepherd  kings,  and  inhabited  by  shepherds. 
The  whole  period  of  the  intrusion  of  these  shepherds,  is  stated 
by  Manetho  as  having  been  511  years,  and  it  is  clear  that 
these  years  terminate  at  the  exode  of  the  Hebrews.  We  now 
refer  to  comparatively  modern  chronology,  not  contradicted  by 
the  "  Egyptologists.5' 


ABRAHAM.  161 

Hales  makes  the  exode 1648  b.  c. 

Add  to  these  the  whole  time  of  the  shepherds     .     .     511    " 


This  makes  the  commencement  of  the  shepherd  rule  2159    " 
Abraham  was  born  (according  to  Hales)     ....  2153    " 

It  is  therefore  obvious,  that  during  Abraham's  time  there  was 
abundant  reason  why  he  should  not  be  slighted  or  despised  in 
Egypt  as  being  a  shepherd.* 

But  the  question  may  arise,  whether  the  shepherd  kings 
were  known  by  the  title  Pharaoh ;  inasmuch  as  the  Bible 
applies  it  to  the  reigning  monarch  of  Egypt  at  the  time  of 
Abraham's  visit.  It  would  appear  from  all  the  light  yet  shed 
on  the  subject,  that  the  shepherds,  during  their  stay,  had 
adopted  the  religion,  the  manners,  and  the  customs  of  Egypt. 
Considerations  derived  from  the  monuments  also  justify  the 
opinion,  that  the  name,  or  rather  title,  of  the  first  monarch  of 
Egypt.  Phra,  became  the  generic  title  of  all  his  successors. 

9.  The  gifts  made  to  Abraham  consisted  of  sheep,  oxen,, 
he  and  she-asses,  men  and  maid-servants,  camels,  gold  and 
silver. 

To  this  a  German  writer  (Von  Bohlen)  objects  as  follows  : 

*  Those  whose  curiosity  may  lead  them  to  further  investigation  on  the  obscure 
and  much-discussed  subject  of  the  shepherd  kings,  are  referred  to  Bunsen,  Heng- 
stenberg,  Wilkinson,  Nolan,  and  the  notes  of  Kitto  in  his  Pictorial  Bible,  particularly 
to  that  on  Gen.  xlvi.  34.  In  that  the  reader  will  find  a  substantial  agreement  with 
the  views  expressed  in  the  text,  though  there  is  a  difference  on  the  subject  of 
Manetho.  We  gladly  avail  ourselves  of  this  opportunity  of  making  a  distinct 
acknowledgment  to  this  author  for  the  very  valuable  aid  we  have  derived  from  his 
labors,  both  in  his  Bible  and  his  "  Palestine."  We  have  used  them  freely  when 
they  were  applicable,  not  with  the  view  of  appropriating  his  toil,  or  robbing  him 
of  his  merited  honors,  but  to  make  our  compilation  more  valuable  to  the  general 
reader. 


162  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

"  The  narrator  mentions  the  animals  of  his  own  native  land, 
a  part  of  which  Abraham  could  not  receive  in  Egypt.  He 
ascribes  to  him  no  horses,  which  were  native  to  Egypt,  as  the 
relator  is  indeed  aware.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  men- 
tions sheep,  which  are  found  in  the  marsh  lands  of  Egypt " 
[Abraham's  visit  was  to  the  lower  part  of  Egypt]  "  as  seldom 
as  camels  (hence  these  last  are  denied  to  the  country  by  the 
ancient  writers)  and  asses,  which  were  specially  odious  to  the 
Egyptians,  on  account  of  their  color."  Hengstenberg  has  very 
satisfactorily  answered  all  this.  Horses  certainly  were  abun- 
dant among  the  Egyptians,  as  the  monuments  show.  They 
were  used  chiefly  in  the  war  chariots  ;  and  though  there  were 
horsemen  in  Egypt,  it  is  remarkable  that  but  a  single  instance 
of  a  man  on  horseback  has  yet  been  found  among  the  repre- 
sentations. But,  common  as  the  animal  was  in  Egypt,  it  was 
not  used  among  the  Israelites  until  the  time  of  the  kings. 
There  were  none  used,  either  in  peace  or  war,  in  the  time  of 
Joshua.  Horses  were  not  likely,  then,  to  be  used  in  the  earlier 
days  of  Abraham's  time,  when,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  chief 
object  of  keeping  them  in  Egypt  did  not  exist  in  Canaan.  If 
this  be  the  reason  why  the  horse  was  not  among  the  gifts  to 
Abraham ;  if  the  present  would  have  been  useless,  because 
the  habits  of  his  country  did  not  require  its  use ;  then,  as 
Hengstenberg  remarks,  the  omission  of  horses  among  the  gifts, 
is  a  fact  in  favor  of  the  true  historical  character  and  Mosaic 
origin  of  the  narrative.  For  if  the  history  had  been  compiled 
in  the  time  of  the  kings  or  afterward,  the  horse  (which  was 
then  used  in  Israel)  would  probably  have  been  mentioned ; 
since  we  cannot  suppose  the  precise  time  of  their  introduction 
would  have  been  accurately  known.  In  fact,  the  introduction 
of  the  animal  among  the  Israelites  was  gradual,  and  we  have 


ABRAHAM.  163 

no  direct  historical  account  of  the  time  when  it  commenced. 
By  an  examination  of  many  scattered  passages,  modern  schol- 
ars have  proved  it  to  have  been  about  the  time  of  the  kings ; 
but  the  Israelites,  after  that  day,  finding  horses  in  the  country, 
troubled  themselves  not  with  an  inquiry  as  to  the  time  of  theii 
introduction.  How  many  of  our  own  countrymen  can,  at  the 
present  day,  tell  when  and  how  the  horse  was  introduced  into 
America  ? 

In  all  the  enumerations  of  patriarchal  wealth  in  the  Bible, 
horses  are  never  mentioned  ;  oxen  drew  the  tabernacle  in  the 
desert,  and  in  truth,  in  the  further  history  of  the  people  de- 
scended from  Abraham,  we  find  that  God  specially  forbade 
their  kings  to  have  many  horses,  or  to  trust  to  Egyptian 
cavalry ;  for  his  purpose  was  to  hedge  his  people  around  from 
the  temptation  of  coming  into  contact  with  idolaters,  and 
Egypt  would  have  been  the  great  horse-market  of  the  Israel- 
ites. The  non-introduction  of  the  horse  by  Abraham,  may, 
therefore,  have  been  a  part  of  the  providential  designs  of  God 
for  the  future. 

Von  Bohlen,  also,  denies  that  there  were  asses  in  Egypt ; 
but,  as  Hengstenberg  says,  it  never  occurred  to  any  one  before 
to  deny  it.  There  are  numerous  representations  of  them  on 
the  monuments. 

It  is  also  said  there  were  no  sheep.  They  are  very  often 
mentioned  by  ancient  authors.  Herodotus  informs  us  that  the 
Egyptians  had  them,  so  also  does  Diodorus.  They  may  be 
seen  in  large  numbers  on  the  monuments  ;  and  numerous 
flocks  of  them  were  kept  near  Memphis,  the  region  where 
Abraham  was. 

As  to  the  camel,  it  is  reasonable  to  infer,  from  present 
facts  and  usages,  that  it  existed  in  ancient  Egypt.     Munitoli 


164  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

thinks  that  he  discovered  traces  of  the  representation  of  a 
samel  on  the  obelisks  at  Luxor.  They  may  not,  however, 
have  been  very  numerous  in  Abraham's  day,  yet  the  king  of 
Egypt  would  possess  them. 

Men  and  maid-seivants  were  also  given.  It  has,  by  some, 
been  deemed  probable,  that  among  these  maid-servants  was 
Hagar ;  for  she  is  expressly  said  in  Scripture  to  be  an  Egyp- 
tian. If  this  conjecture  be  well  founded,  it  would  serve  to 
prove  that,  though  the  great  body  of  slaves  were  foreigners 
and  captives  taken  in  war,  yet  that  sometimes  Egyptians  held 
their  own  people  in  servitude.  The  monuments  confirm  this 
view. 

10.  Abraham  accepted  the  gifts  of  Pharaoh. 

However  unnatural  and  unmanly  such  conduct  may 
appear  in  our  time  and  in  our  state  of  society,  yet,  as  Kitto 
has  remarked,  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  usages  of 
the  East,  know  that  he  dared  not  refuse  them. 


CHAPTER  TO. 

JOSEPH. 

The  greater  part  of  the  life  of  Joseph  having  been  passed  in 
Egypt,  many  incidents  in  his  career  furnish  us  with  the 
means  of  comparison,  in  die  work  on  which  we  have  entered. 
Indeed,  from  the  time  of  his  sale  to  Potiphar,  through  the 
bondage,  up  to  the  exode,  the  Jews  are  brought  into  uninter- 
rupted intercourse  with  the  Egyptians  for  several  hundred 
years.  In  this  period,  therefore,  we  may  expect  to  meet  with 
abundant  facts,  to  the  consideration  of  which  we  now 
proceed. 

The  story  of  Joseph,  touchingly  simple  and  beautiful  in 
the  Scripture  narrative,  is  so  familiar,  that  any  outline  of  it 
here  would  be  perfectly  needless,  but  for  the  advantage  of 
bringing  at  once  into  view  the  facts  connected  with  our  sub- 
ject.    We  shall  condense  it  as  much  as  we  can. 

At  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  his 
brothers,  "  who  hated  him,  and  could  not  speak  peaceably  to 
him.*'  and  this  aversion  was,  soon  after,  carried  to  the  highest 
pitch.  Availing  themselves  of  a  favorable  opportunity,  they 
sold  him  to  a  caravan  of  Arabian  merchants,  who  were  bearing 
spices  and  aromatic  gums  of  India,  to  the  well-known  and 
much  frequented  market  of  Egypt.  On  arriving  in  Egypt, 
the    merchants    disposed  of  their  young  slave,   by    sale,   to 


166  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Potiphar,  an  Egyptian,  at  that  time  high  in  office  in  the  court 
of  Pharaoh.  Here  he  possessed  his  master's  confidence,  and 
prospered.  At  length  his  personal  beauty  excited  the  libi- 
dinous passions  of  his  master's  wife  ;  and  on  his  virtuous 
rejection  of  her  wanton  allurements,  she  contrives,  with  much 
art,  to  make  it  appear  to  her  husband  that  Joseph  had  aimed 
a  blow  at  his  master's  honor,  by  tempting  her.  Her  unprin- 
cipled falsehood  succeeds,  and  Joseph  is  cast  into  prison.  At 
length,  his  correct  interpretation  of  the  dreams  of  two  of 
Pharaoh's  officers  who  were  in  prison  with  him,  leads  to  his 
being  summoned  before  Pharaoh  to  interpret  for  him  also. 
He  predicts  a  period  of  plenty,  to  be  succeeded  by  an  equal 
period  of  famine  ;  and  recommends  measures  to  the  king  for 
averting  the  calamity  foretold.  Charged  by  Pharaoh  with 
the  execution  of  these  measures,  he  rises  to  a  station  of 
eminence,  and  marries  an  Egyptian  lady  of  rank:  and  his 
own  name  is  changed  to  an  Egyptian  one.  At  length  famine 
drives  his  brethren  (who  had  sold  him)  to  Egypt  to  procure 
food,  when,  after  many  interesting  incidents,  he  makes  him- 
self known  to  them,  and  at  length  establishes  all  his  family, 
including  his  aged  father,  in  Goshen.  After  death  his  body, 
as  that  of  his  father's  had  before  been,  is  embalmed,  and  both 
finally  rest  in  a  distant  land. 

We  now  enter,  in  detail,  upon  the  facts  brought  to  our 
notice  by  the  history  of  Joseph. 

1.   He  was  sold  by  his  brethren  to  Arabian  merchants, 
travelling  with  their  spices,  fyc,  to  Egypt. 

"  Then  there  passed  by  Midianites,  merchantmen ;   and 
they  drew  and  lifted  up  Joseph  out  of  the  pit,  and  sold  Joseph 


JOSEPH.  167 

to  the  Ishmaelites  for  twenty  pieces  of  silver :  and  they  brought 
Joseph  into  Egypt."    Gen.  xxxvii.  28. 

Were  Arabian  caravans  accustomed  at  that  time  to  go  into 
Egypt  with  merchandise  ?  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that 
they  were.  Among  other  facts  tending  to  prove  it,  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson  refers  to  certain  wells  in  the  desert  over  which  the 
caravans  were  obliged  to  pass ;  and  states  that,  as  appears 
from  the  monuments,  the  king  Amun-in  gori  II.  (of  the  16th 
dynasty),  caused  a  station  to  be  erected  at  the  Wady  Jasoos, 
to  command  these  wells  for  the  comfort  of  the  caravans  pass- 
ing from  Arabia  into  Egypt.  The  same  respectable  authority 
deems  it  "highly  probable 'that  the  port  of  Philoteras  or  JEn- 
num,  on  the  Red  Sea,  was  already  founded  ;"  and  adds,  "  thus 
we  have  an  additional  reason  for  concluding,  the  commerce 
with  Arabia  to  have  commenced  at  a  very  early  period ;  and 
that  its  gums  and  spices  found  a  ready  market  in  the  opulent 
Egypt,  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  Ishmaelites  or  Arabs  of 
those  days  bringing  them  for  sale  into  the  lower  country." 
Heeren  expresses  also  a  similar  opinion  as  to  the  very  early 
commerce  between  Arabia  and  Egypt. 

2.  Joseph  "  was  sold  to  the  Ishmaelites  for  twenty  pieces 
of  silver." 

The  expression  is  usual  in  Scripture  "  pieces  of  silver," 
"  pieces  of  money ;"  but  we  do  nowhere  find,  in  these  early 
times,  mention  made  of  any  specific  coin  having  a  fixed  value. 
Had  such  been  the  case  here,  it  would  have  thrown  suspicion 
on  the  story.  History  offers  no  intimation  that,  any  where, 
either  in  the  east  or  west,  coined  money  existed,  until  many 
hundred  years  after  the  date  of  this  transaction.  In  fact,  it 
seems  doubtful  whether  coined  or  stamped  money  is  of  oriental 


168  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

origin.  The  precious  metals  passed  by  weight,  in  the  form 
of  ingots,  bars,  and  rings  ;  and  such  the  monuments  now 
show  to  have  been  the  case  in  Egypt.  The  Greeks,  we 
know,  had  coined  money  before  the  Egyptians,  and  nations 
of  Western  Asia  had  it.  The  incident  here  mentioned  there- 
fore, though  in  itself  considered  it  is  comparatively  trifling, 
yet  deserves  to  be  noted  because  it  is  in  harmony  with  the 
customs  of  that  day. 

3.  Joseph  was  sold  for  a  household  slave. 

"  And  the  Midianites  sold  him  into  Egypt  unto  Potiphar, 
an  officer  of  Pharaoh's,  and  captain  of  the  guard."  Gen. 
xxxvii.  36. 

In  addition  to  the  remarks  already  submitted  on  the  sub- 
ject of  slavery  in  the  last  chapter,  we  would  here  observe, 
that  probably,  the  first  slaves  were  prisoners  taken  in  war; 
and  that  the  traffic  in  slaves  arose  from  the  fact  that  these 
prisoners  at  length  came  to  be  sold  by  their  captors,  to  persons 
who  had  not  known  them  in  war  at  all,  nor  ever  met  them  as 
enemies.  The  next  step  was  that  of  buying  up  as  slaves, 
any  persons  offered  for  sale,  though  they  were  not  taken  in 
war, — solely  as  a  speculation.  These  purchased  persons  were 
carried  to  a  distant  market,  and  sold  at  a  profit :  and  Egypt 
always  has  been,  and  is  yet,  a  great  market  for  slaves.  On 
this  subject,  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  thus  embodies  what  he 
has  collected  from  the  monuments. 

"  The  captives  brought  to  Egypt  were  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  monarch  in  building  temples,  cutting  canals, 
raising  dykes  and  embankments,  and  other  public  works  ;  and 
some  who  were  purchased  by  the  grandees,  were  employed  in 
the  same  capacity  as  the  Memlooks  of  the  present.     Women 


JOSEPH.  169 

slaves  were  also  engaged  in  the  service  of  families,  like  the 
Greeks  and  Circassians  in  Modern  Egypt  and  other  parts  of 
the  Turkish  empire  ;  and  from  finding  them  represented  in 
the  sculptures  of  Thebes,  accompanying  men  of  their  own 
nation  who  bear  tribute  to  the  Eygptian  monarch,  we  may 
conclude  that  a  certain  number  were  annually  sent  to  Egypt 
from  the  conquered  provinces  of  the  north  and  east,  as  well 
as  from  Ethiopia.  It  is  evident  that  both  white  and  black 
slaves  were  employed  as  servants.  They  attended  on  the 
guests  when  invited  to  the  house  of  their  master ;  and  from 
their  being  in  the  families  of  priests,  as  well  as  of  the  military 
chiefs-,  we  may  infer  that  they  were  purchased  with  money, 
and  that  the  right  of  possessing  slaves  was  not  confined  to 
those  who  had  taken  them  in  war.  The  traffic  in  slaves 
was  tolerated ;  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  many 
persons  were  engaged,  as  at  present,  in  bringing  them  to 
Egypt  for  public  sale,  independent  of  those  who  were  sent 
as  part  of  the  tribute,  and  who  were  probably  at  first 
the  property  of  the  monarch.  Nor  did  any  difficulty  occur 
to  the  Ishmaelites  in  the  purchase  of  Joseph  from  his 
brethren,  nor  in  his  subsequent  sale  to  Potiphar  on  arriving 
in  Eygpt." 

4.  He  was  sold  to  "  Potiphar,  an  officer  of  Pharaoh's,  and 
captain  of  the  guard." 

We  should  not  have  deemed  it  necessary  to  call  attention 
to  this  part  of  the  story,  had  it  not  been  made  the  foundation 
of  a  very  causeless  objection.  The  original  word  cno,  saris, 
translated  officer,  literally  means  eunuch  ;  and  hence  a  German 
writer  objects ;  because,  he  says,  there  were  no  eunuchs  in 
Egypt.     This  is  not  true,  as  he  might  have  learned  from 


170  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Rosellini,  and  the  "Description  de  l'Egypte."  Both  furnish 
monumental  proof  that  it  is  not  true.  The  translators  of  our 
Bible,  to  the  word  "  officer,"  add  this  marginal  note :  "  Heb. 
Eunuch ;  but  the  word  doth  signify,  not  only  eunuchs,  but 
also  chamber laitis,  courtiers,  and  officers.  Esth.  i.  10."  It  is 
conceded  that  the  primary  meaning  is  eunuch,  but  as  such 
persons  were,  in  the  East,  usually  employed  about  the  court 
in  situations  of  trust,  the  word  came  to  signify  any  courtier  or 
palace  officer,  whether  he  were  an  eunuch  or  not.  Potiphar 
is  also  called  "  captain  of  the  guard."  The  marginal  note  in 
our  English  translation  is,  "  Heb :  chief  of  the  slaughtermen 
or  executioners,  or  chief  marshal."  That  the  Pharaohs  had 
a  body-guard  is  expressly  stated  by  Herodotus ;  and  is  also 
proved  by  battle  scenes,  &c,  on  the  monuments,  where  such 
a  guard  is  seen  around  the  person  of  the  king,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  a  particular  dress.  Potiphar,  as  captain  of  this 
band,  was  the  chief  of  the  executioners  :  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered that,  at  the  East,  this  is  a  high  court  office ;  he 
was  no  common  headsman,  for  he  executed  the  sentences  or 
awards  only  that  were  pronounced  by  the  king  himself.  His 
office  was  considered  one  of  great  honor  and  responsibility ; 
and  the  incidental  allusion  to  it  in  the  story,  shows  on  the 
part  of  its  author,  minutely  accurate  information  as  to  the 
customs  and  usages  of  the  Pharaonic  court. 

.  Joseph  was  made  overseer  of  Pharaoh's  house. 

"  And  Joseph  found  grace  in  his  sight  and  he  served  him  : 
and  he  made  him  overseer  of  his  house,  and  all  that  he  had, 
he  put  into  his  hand."     Gen.  xxxix.  4. 

This  is  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  feature  of  Egyptian 
life.    The  monuments  furnish  numerous  evidences  of  it.    The 


JOSEPH. 


171 


steward  or  overseer  is  often  delineated.    Rosellini  has  the  copy 
of  a  painting  from  a  tomb  at  Beni  Hassan,  and  remarks  of 

it, — "in  this  scene,  as  also  in  many  

others  which  exhibit  the  internal  econ- 
omy of  a  house,  a  man  carrying  imple- 
ments for  writing, — the  pen  over  his 
ear,  the  tablet  or  paper  in  his  hand, 
and  the  writing-table  under  his  arm, — 
either  follows  or  goes  before  the  ser- 
vants." And  all  doubt  is  removed  as 
to  the  office  and  character  of  this  per- 
sonage, by  an  inscription  over  him 
stating  that  he  is  the  overseer  of  the 
slaves,  or  the  steward. 

Wilkinson  has  also  the  drawing  of 
an  Egyptian  steward  "  overlooking  the 
tillage  of  the  lands."  "Among  the 
objects  of  tillage  and  husbandry"  (says 
Rosellini),  "we  often  see  a  steward, 
who  takes  account  and  makes  a  re- 
gistry of  the  harvest,  before  it  is 
deposited  in  the  storehouse."  A  repre- 
sentation of  such  a  scene  is  annexed, 
where  the  steward  is  placed  on  the 
top  of  a  heap  of  grain,  while  one  of 
the  men  below  is  informing  him  of 
the  amount  of  work  done,  and  accom- 
panying his  statement  of  numbers 
with  manual  signs. 

"  In .  a  tomb  at  Kum  el  Ahmar,"  (according  to  Rosellini,) 
"the  office  of  a  steward  with  all  its  apparatus  is  represented  : 


U2  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

two  scribes  appear  with  all  their  preparations  for  writing,  and 
there  are  three  rows  of  volumes,  the  account  and  household 
books  of  the  steward." 

6.  Potiphar's  wife  seeks  to  seduce  Joseph. 

We  have  here  first  to  remark  the  low  state  of  morals 
among  the  Egyptians,  with  reference  to  the  marriage  relation. 
Have  we  any  ground  for  believing  there  was  a  laxity  of  prin- 
ciple in  this  particular  1  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  both  state 
that  there  was.  We  have  already  seen,  from  the  monuments, 
the  great  liberty  allowed  to  the  women  of  Egypt,  and  the 
sensuality  which  prompted  them  to  excess  in  drinking.  It  is 
not  difficult,  in  such  a  state  of  society  as  these  representations 
indicate,  to  believe  the  accounts  of  Herodotus. 

It  will  be  remembered  that,  according  to  the  Scripture 
narrative,  Potiphar's  wife  availed  herself  of  an  opportunity 
to  seduce  Joseph,  when  he  came  into  the  house  "  to  do  his 
business ;  and  there  was  none  of  the  men  of  the  house  then 
within."  (Gen.  xxxix.  11.)  To  this  it  has  been  objected  by 
some  of  the  German  school,  that  the  statement  betrays  an 
ignorance  of  Egyptian  customs :  that  it  would  not  have  been 
permitted  to  Joseph  to  come  into  the  presence  of  the  women, 
much  less  into  the  harem.  Another  objector  remarks  that  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch  here  leaves  the  representation  of  the 
custom  in  the  house  of  a  distinguished  Egyptian,  to  describe 
that  which  existed  in  a  common  domestic  establishment.  The 
ignorance  is  on  the  side  of  the  critics ;  neither  in  the  house  of 
a  distinguished,  nor  of  a  common  Egyptian,  was  there  any 
restriction  placed  on  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  the  sexes. 
We  have  already  seen  that  from  the  monuments.  Those  who 
made  the  objection,  inferred  that  there  must  have  been  such  a 
restriction  in  Egypt  from  the  fact  of  its  existence  throughout 


JOSEPH.  173 

the  East  generally ;  and  had  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch 
been  writing  a  story  made  up  of  probable  inferences,  he 
would  have  fallen  into  the  error  that  we  have  seen  in  these 
objectors.  That  he  did  not  do  so,  but  discriminated  between 
Egypt  and  the  rest  of  the  East  in  this  particular,  goes  far  to 
strengthen  the  impression  that  he  drew  from  the  life. 

7.  Joseph  in  prison^  interprets  the  dreams  of  the  chief 
baker  and  butler. 

Here,  several  particulars  present  themselves  that  call  for  a 
passing  remark.  The  existence  of  such  officers  as  the  chief 
butler  and  baker,  afford  renewed  testimony  of  the  fact  of  an 
advanced  and  complex  state  of  social  life  ;  of  which  we  pre- 
sume that  our  readers  are  by  this  time  convinced.  But  if 
additional  evidence  were  wanting,  it  is  abundantly  afforded 
by  the  monuments.  Rosellini  has  depicted  the  kitchen  scenes 
upon  the  tomb  of  Remeses  IV.  at  Biban  el  Moluk ; — "  from  all 
these  representations"  (says  he),  "it  is  clear  that  the  Egyptians 
were  accustomed  to  prepare  many  kinds  of  pastry  for  the 
table,  as  we  see  the  very  same  kinds  spread  out  upon  the 
altars  and  tables  which  are  represented  in  the  tombs.  They 
made  even  bread  in  many  and  various  forms.  These  articles 
are  found  in  the  tombs  kneaded  from  barley  or  wheat,  in  the 
form  of  a  star,  a  triangle,  a  disk,  and  other  such  like  things." 
Wilkinson  also  furnishes  delineations  of  similar  articles  which 
he  found. 

According  to  the  baker's  dream,  he  was  carrying  three 
wicker-baskets  on  his  head,  filled  with  the  productions  of  his 
skill.  The  monuments  show  us  the  form  of  these  flat  wicker- 
baskets,  of  which,  from  the  shape,  one  might  be  placed  above 
another.    But  the  peculiarity  here  is  in  the  mode  of  carrying 


174 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


them, — on  his  head.  This  is  to  this  day  characteristic  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  we  believe,  peculiar  to  them  among  Eastern 
nations.  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  custom  as  being  singular 
in  his  eyes.  "  Men  bear  burdens  on  their  heads,  and  women 
on  their  shoulders."  We  present  an  example  taken  from  the 
monuments,  in  which  the  servant  is  kneeling  to  facilitate  the 
removal  of  his  load. 


Egyptian  mode  of  bearing  on  the  head. 


The  head  butler,  it  will  be  remembered,  in  his  dream 
saw  a  vine.  This  has  been  made  a  ground  of  objection  to 
the  truth  of  the  narrative.  Herodotus  has  stated,  that  the 
vine  did  not  grow  in  Egypt.  This  furnishes  one,  among 
other  instances  which  might  be  cited,  wherein  Herodotus  was 


JOSEPH.  175 

mistaken.  The  vine  did  grow  in  Egypt;  and  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson  has  furnished  the  most  abundant  proof  of  the  fact 
in  various  drawings  from  the  monuments,  showing  not  merely 
the  vine  growing,  but  also  the  whole  process  of  converting  the 
grape  into  wine. 

8.  Joseph  is  sent  for,  to  interpret  Pharaoh's  dream. 

The  first  particular  here  to  be  noticed,  is  the  preparation 
Joseph  makes  to  appear  before  Pharaoh ;  "  and  he  shaved 
himself,"  &c,  "  and  came  in  unto  Pharaoh."  To  us,  with 
our  habits,  there  may  appear  to  be  nothing  but  what,  under 
similar  circumstances,  we  ourselves  should  do ;  but  if  care- 
fully considered,  this  is  one  of  the  many  passages  to  be  found, 
in  which  the  truth  of  the  Scripture  story  is  attested  by  a 
casual  and  slight  allusion  to  remarkable  customs,  which  a 
mere  inventor  would  not  be  likely  to  introduce  at  all ;  or  at 
any  rate,  to  introduce  without  explanation.  Most  oriental 
nations  have  always  cherished  the  beard,  and  do  so  to  this 
day.  The  loss  of  it  is  regarded  as  a  disgrace.  Such  was 
undoubtedly  the  feeling  of  the  Hebrews.  Now  in  this  com- 
mon trait  of  orientalism,  the  Egyptians  did  not  share.  The 
monuments  and  paintings  generally  represent  to  us  the  male 
Egyptians  as  beardless.  Some  of  the  sculptures  indeed  some- 
times show  a  species  of  rectangular  beard-case,  attached  to 
the  chin  by  straps  or  bands,  which,  passing  by  the  side  of  the 
face,  were  fastened  to  the  cap.  It  is  evidently  an  artificial 
appendage,  and  it  has  been  conjectured  that  it  was  used  on 
the  monuments  to  indicate  the  male  character.  Certain  it  is, 
however,  that  the  great  mass  of  Egyptian  men  in  the  sculp- 
tures, are  represented  without  beards. 

On  the  subject  of  shaving  their  beards,  "Wilkinson  remarks: 


176  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

"  so  particular  were  they  on  this  point,  that  to  have  neglected 
it  was  a  subject  of  reproach  and  ridicule  ;  and  whenever  they 
intended  to  convey  the  idea  of  a  man  of  low  condition,  or  a 
slovenly  person,  the  artists  represented  him  with  a  beard." 
The  priests  shaved  the  head  as  well  as  the  beard  ;  and  others 
who  did  not  the  first,  wore  their  hair  cropped  as  close  as  pos- 
sible. When  the  monuments  show  us  heads  with  abundant 
and  long  hair,  the  individual  delineated  is  wearing  a  wig,  of 
which  Wilkinson  furnishes  us  with  drawings.  From  Rosel- 
lini,  we  learn  that  this  custom  of  the  Egyptians  with  respect  to 
the  hair  and  beard,  was  considered  by  the  neighboring  nations, 
and  especially  by  the  Asiatics,  as  peculiar  and  characteristic. 
Hence  Joseph  (who  was  not  an  Egyptian,  and  who  had  been 
several  years  in  prison,  where  he  permitted  his  beard  to  grow) 
would  not  dare  to  enter  the  presence  of  Pharaoh  without 
shaving ;  and  the  particularity  with  which  the  writer  mentions 
the  circumstance,  shows  that,  among  orientals  generally,  to 
shave  was  not  a  matter  of  course ;  and  next,  that  he  knew 
the  customs  of  Egypt  rendered  the  act,  on  the  part  of  Joseph, 
indispensable. 

The  next  point  calling  for  remark,  is  the  dream  of  Pharaoh ; 
for  it  is  in  perfect  accordance  with  Egyptian  opinions,  and  can 
scarce  be  the  invention  of  an  author  who  is  relating  mere 
fables.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  chief  feature  of  the 
one  dream,  is  the  appearance  of  seven  fat  and  seven  lean 
kine ;  and  the  destruction  of  the  former  by  the  latter.  We 
learn  from  Clement  of  Alexandria,  that  in  the  symbolical 
writings  of  the  Egyptians,  the  ox  signified  agriculture  and 
subsistence ;  and  as  the  Nile  (out  of  which  the  cattle  came) 
was  the  source  of  Egypt's  fertility,  there  is  a  peculiar  Egyp- 


JOSEPH.  177 

tian  appropriateness  in   the  mode   adopted  to  prefigure  an 
abundance  and  subsequent  dearth  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 

There  was  also  an  apt  and  striking  significancy  in  the 
second  dream,  in  the  seven  ears  of  corn  [wheat]  that  came  up 
on  one  stalk.  Some  have  sought  for  an  explanation  of  this, 
in  the  number  of  separate  stalks  germinating  from  a  single 
seed.  Thus  Jowett,  in  his  Christian  Researches,  states  that 
he  "  counted  the  number  of  stalks  which  sprouted  from  single 
grains  of  seed,  carefully  pulling  to  pieces  each  root,  in  order 
to  see  that  it  was  one  plant.  The  first  had  seven  stalks  ;  the 
next  three  ;  then  eighteen  ;  then  fourteen.  Each  stalk  would 
bear  an  ear."  But  an  easier  solution  is  found  in  the  species 
of  wheat,  the  Triticum  compositum,  or  Egyptian  wheat  as  it 
is  sometimes  called  ;  which  was  then,  and  still  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  Egypt,  and  indeed,  as  we  are  inclined  to  think, 
originated  there.  It  is  the  peculiarity  of  this  species  that  it 
bears  several  ears  on  one  stalk ;  and  it  is  not  unknown,  at 
this  day,  on  our  own  continent,  for  it  grows  in  California,  and 
there  usually  produces  seven  ears  to  the  stalk.  We  have  not 
been  able  to  ascertain  that  this  species  of  wheat  was  culti- 
vated in  Palestine  by  the  Hebrews,  or  that  it  will  grow  there ; 
for  though  all  the  varieties  of  wheat  cannot  be  found  in  a 
natural  state,  and  therefore  all  probably  are  but  modifications 
from  a  common  original ;  yet  will  not  all  grow  in  every 
climate  or  soil.  The  best  and  heaviest  wheat  of  Palestine 
was  and  is  the  variety  now  known  as  Heshbon  wheat ; 
because  discovered  at  Heshbon,  by  Captain  Mangles.  Laborde 
describes  the  same,  but  this  wheat  does  not  yield  several  ears 
to  a  single  stalk.     The  writer  of  the  Pentateuch,  therefore, 

here  incidentally  describes  a  production  of  the  earth,  which 
12 


178  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

he  probably  never  could  have  seen  in  Palestine ;  and  which 
was,  as  far  as  we  can  learn,  peculiar  at  that  day,  to  Egypt. 

Pharaoh,  as  we  read,  "  sent  and  called  for  all  the  magi- 
cians of  Egypt,  and  all  the  wise  men  thereof,"  to  interpret  his 
dreams.  We  meet  with  these  men  here,  and  again,  as  we 
shall  see  hereafter.  Who  were  these  magi  or  wise  men? 
Do  we  learn,  from  the  antiquities  of  Egypt,  that  any  such 
class  was  known  1  We  do  find  in  ancient  Egypt  an  order  of 
men,  to  whom  that  which  is  here  ascribed  to  the  magicians,  is 
perfectly  appropriate. 

"  The  priests  "  (says  Hengstenberg)  "  had  a  double  office ; 
the  practical  worship  of  the  gods,  and  the  pursuit  of  that 
which,  in  Egypt,  was  accounted  as  wisdom.  The  first  be- 
longed to  the  so  called  prophets,  the  second  to  the  holy  scribes 
(UgoyQctpixaTsig).  These  last  were  the  learned  men  of  the 
nation ;  as  in  the  Pentateuch  they  are  called  wise  men,  so 
the  classical  writers  named  them  sages.  These  men  were 
applied  to  for  explanation  and  aid  in  all  things  which  lay 
beyond  the  circle  of  common  knowledge  and  action.  Thus, 
in  severe  cases  of  sickness,  for  example,  along  with  the  physi- 
cian a  scribe  was  called,  who,  from  a  book  and  astrological 
signs,  determined  whether  recovery  was  possible.  The  inter- 
pretation of  dreams,  and  also  divination,  belonged  to  the  order 
of  the  holy  scribes.  In  times  of  pestilence,  they  applied 
themselves  to  magic  arts  to  avert  the  disease.  A  passage 
in  Lucian  furnishes  a  peculiarly  interesting  parallel  to  the 
accounts  of  the  Pentateuch  concerning  the  practice  of  magic 
arts  : — "  There  was  with  us  in  the  vessel,  a  man  of  Memphis, 
one  of  the  holy  scribes,  wonderful  in  wisdom,  and  skilled  in 
all  sorts  of  Egyptian  knowledge.     It  was  said  of  him,  that  he 


JOSEPH.  179 

had  lived  twenty-three  years  in  subterranean  sanctuaries,  and 
that  he  had  there  been  instructed  in  magic  by  Isis." 

9.  Joseph's  elevation  to  office  and  honor  by  Pharaoh. 
Under  this  head,  several  particulars  invite  our  notice. 
i.  Pharaoh  says:  "Thou  shalt  be  over  my  house;"  and, 

"  see,  I  have  set  thee  over  all  the  land  of  Egypt." 
n.  Pharaoh  "took  off  his  ring  from  his  hand,  and  put  it 

on  Joseph's  hand." 
in.  He  "arrayed  him  in  vestures  of  fine  linen." 
iv.  He  "put  a  gold  chain  about  his  neck." 
v.  He  changed  Joseph's  name  to  an  Egyptian  one. 
vi.  He  married  him  to  Asenath. 
vii.  Her  father  was  Potipherah,  priest  of  On. 
"  Over  my  house." — We  have  had  occasion  already,  in 
speaking  of  the  confidence  reposed  in  Joseph  by  Potiphar,  to 
advert  to  the  office  of  a  steward  among  the  Egyptians,  so 
often  delineated  on  the  monuments.     This  honorable  station 
in  the  East,  is  one  of  far  more  authority  and  power  than  any 
thing,   in   our  own   state   of  society,   would   suggest.     The 
phrase    "  over  my  house,"  would  have  imported  magisterial 
power  in  Egypt,  if  used  by  a  subject  of  high  rank  merely : 
but  here,  when  it  is  used  by  the  king  himself,  it  at  once  places 
Joseph  before  every  man  in  the  kingdom  but  the  sovereign ; 
for  Pharaoh   immediately  adds,   "according  unto  thy  word, 
shall  all  my  people  be  ruled :  only  in  the  throne  will  I  be 
greater   than   thou."     Despotism   is  the  characteristic  of  all 
oriental  governments ;  and  to  this  day,  the  grant  of  almost 
unlimited   powers    to  the  sovereign's   representative  is  to  be 
found.     The  vizier,  the   pachas,  and  even   the  beys  of  the 
Sultan,  have  even  now  absolute  power  of  life  and  death ;  and 


180  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

all  may,  and  do,  with  impunity,  practise  the  most  revolting 
cruelties.  There  is,  therefore,  nothing  inconsistent  with 
orientalism  in  this  large  grant  of  power  to  Joseph. 

Pharaoh  gives  to  Joseph  his  ring.  This  was  an  act  of 
investiture,  such  as  is  not  entirely  foreign  to  the  usages  of 
Europe,  in  the  middle  ages.  But  here,  the  ring  was  a  signet 
or  seal  ring,  delivered,  precisely  as  it  is  at  this  day,  to  the 
king's  chief  officer,  for  the  purpose,  by  its  impress,  of  attesting 
his  official  acts  as  the  acts  of  royalty.  The  more  usual  mode 
in  the  East  of  authenticating  a  document,  is  not  by  a  written 
signature,  but  by  the  seal.  The  orientals  have  seals  in  which 
their  names  and  titles  are  engraved  ;  with  this  they  make  an 
impression  with  thick  ink  on  occasions  where  we  should  affix 
our  signatures  with  the  pen.  To  give  a  man  your  seal,  there- 
fore, is  to  give  him  the  use  of  that  authority  and  power  which 
your  own  signature  possesses.  Hence  the  extraordinary  in- 
terest manifested  about  seals  in  the  laws  and  usages  of  the 
East.  In  Eygpt,  the  punishment  for  counterfeiting  a  seal  was 
the  loss  of  both  hands.  The  seal-cutter  in  Persia  is,  at  this 
day,  obliged  to  keep  a  register  of  every  seal  he  makes,  and  to 
affix  the  date  at  which  it  was  cut.  To  make  another  like  it, 
is  punished  with  death.  If  the  seal  be  lost  or  stolen,  the  only 
resource  of  its  owner  is  to  have  another  cut,  with  a  new  date, 
and  to  inform  his  correspondent  that  all  documents  attested 
by  his  former  seal  are  null  from  the  time  of  its  loss.  That 
the  ring  given  to  Joseph  was  Pharaoh's  signet-ring,  appears 
from  other  passages  which  show  that  it  was  used  for  sealing. 

But  one  of  the  German  school  of  critics,  remarking  on  this 
transaction,  writes : — "  It  is  scarcely,  however,  necessary  to 
mention  that  these  objects  of  luxury,  especially  polished 
stones,  belonged  to  a  later  time."     This  is  a  striking  instance 


JOSEPH. 


181 


of  bold  and  unfounded  assertion.  There  is  at  this  moment, 
in  the  very  valuable  cabinet  of  Dr.  Abbot  at  Cairo,  a  large 
collection  of  bracelets,  rings,  seals,  &c,  some  of  which  are 


Egyptian  siipiet-rrngs,  and  bracelets. 


182  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

undoubtedly  remains  of  the  time  of  Cheops  in  the  fourth 
dynasty,  a  period  long  anterior  to  the  days  of  Abraham.  In- 
deed, there  is  in  the  collection,  a  golden  bracelet  bearing  the 
hieroglyphic  of  Menes  ;  but  of  the  genuineness  of  this,  we 
think  doubts  may  well  be  entertained.  These  are  cut.  some 
in  stone,  and  some  in  gold.  The  evidence  from  the  monu- 
ments also  most  abundantly  refutes  the  assertion  of  the 
German  neologist.  We  subjoin  a  specimen  of  signet-rings, 
with  a  bracelet  or  two,  copied  from  the  monuments,  which 
may  not  be  without  interest  for  the  reader. 

Of  one  of  these  rings,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  stone  is 
a  cube,  made  to  turn  on  pivots ;  on  the  different  sides  of 
which  were  different  inscriptions.  Some  of  these  ornaments 
appear  to  have  been  designed  for  ear-rings. 

Pharaoh  also  arrayed  Joseph  "  in  vestures  of  fine  linen." 
Few  subjects  have  provoked  more  discussion  among  the 
learned  than  the  question,  whether  the  Egyptians  had  in 
ancient  times  any  knowledge  of  cotton  ;  some  having  sup- 
posed that  the  word  rendered  linen  in  our  version,  really 
means  cotton.  At  length  it  was  supposed  that  the  microscope 
had  settled  the  question.  The  coverings  or  swathings  of  the 
mummies  were  examined  by  Mr.  Bauer,  and  he  found  that 
they  were  linen.  The  ultimate  fibre  of  cotton,  under  the 
microscope,  appears  to  be  a  transparent,  flattened  tube  without 
joints,  and  twisted  like  a  corkscrew  :  while  the  fibres  of  linen, 
and  of  the  mummy  cloths,  are  transparent  cylinders,  jointed 
like  a  cane,  and  neither  flattened,  nor  spirally  twisted.  And 
as  Herodotus  states  that  the  Egyptians  wrapped  their  dead  in 
cloth  of  the  byssus,  it  was  concluded  that  byssus  meant  flax. 
But  Rosellini  afterward  "  found  the  seeds  of  the  cotton  plant 
in  a  vessel  in  the  tombs  of  Egypt ;"  and  Dr.  Bowring,  it  is 


JOSEPH.  183 

said,  has  ascertained  that  "the  mummy  cloth  of  a  child  was 
formed  of  cotton  and  not  of  linen,  as  is  the  case  with  adult 
mummies." 

Whether  the  ancient  Egyptians,  however,  had  any  know- 
ledge of  cotton  or  not,  it  is  very  certain  that  the  cultivation  of 
flax  and  the  use  of  linen  among  them  was  very  general. 
Herodotus  informs  us  that  they  were  so  regardful  of  neatness 
that  they  wore  only  linen,  and  that  always  newly  washed : 
the  priesthood,  also,  he  tells  us,  was  confined  to  one  particular 
mode  of  dress  ;  they  had  one  vest  of  fine  linen. 

Without  undertaking  to  settle  the  disputed  point  to  which 
we  have  referred  above,  we  pass  to  the  more  important  parti- 
cular that  this  arraying  of  Joseph  in  vestures  of  byssus,  was 
an  additional  act  of  investiture  in  his  high  office.  At  this  day 
in  the  East,  a  dress  of  honor  accompanies  promotion  in  the 
royal  service.  In  a  tomb  at  Thebes,  as  we  learn  from  Wilkin- 
son, "  an  instance  occurs  of  the  investiture  of  a  chief  to  the 
post  of  fan-bearer ;  in  which  the  two  attendants  or  inferior 
priests  are  engaged  in  clothing  him  with  the  robes  of  his  new 
office.  One  puts  on  the  necklace,  the  other  arranges  his 
dress, — a  fillet  being  already  bound  round  his  head,"  &c. : — 
"  the  office  of  fan-bearer  to  the  king  was  a  highly  honorable 
post,  which  none  but  the  royal  princes,  or  the  sons  of  the  first 
nobility,  were  permitted  to  hold." 

Pharaoh  put  a  gold  chain  about  Joseph's  neck. 

This  also  was  another  part  of  the  ceremonial  of  investiture. 
On  this  subject  the  monuments  afford  the  most  satisfactory 
explanations.  As  Hengstcnberg  writes :  "  In  the  tombs  of 
Beni  Hassan,  many  slaves  are  represented,  each  of  whom  has 
in  his  hand  something  which  belongs  to  the  dress  or  orna- 
ments of  his  master.     The  first  carries  one  of  the  necklaces 


184 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


with  which  the  neck  and  breast  of  persons  of  high  rank  are 
generally  adorned.  Over  it  stands,  '  necklace  of  gold?  At 
Beni  Hassan  there  is  also  a  similar  representation,  in  another 
tomb,  of  a  noble  Egyptian." 


RVCHftBDSON.^r. 


Investing  with  the  necklace. 


Wilkinson  has  a  representation  from  Thebes,  which  he 
applies  as  illustrative  of  the  very  incident  we  are  now  con- 
sidering. "  The  investiture  of  a  chief,"  thus  he  writes,  "  was 
a  ceremony  of  considerable  importance,  when  the  post  con- 
ferred was  connected  with  any  high  dignity  about  the  person 
of  the  monarch,  in  the  army,  or  the  priesthood.  It  took  place 
in  the  presence  of  the  sovereign,  seated  on  his  throne ;  and 
two  priests,  having  arrayed  the  candidate  in  a  long,  loose 
vesture,  placed  necklaces  round  the  neck  of  the  person  thus 
honored  by  the  royal  favor." 


186  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Pharaoh  changed  Joseph's  name  to  an  Egyptian  one. 
Our  version  gives  us,  as  the  new  name,  Zaphnath-Paaneah. 
The  Septuagint  gives  us  Psonlhom-phanech,  and  Josephus 
Psothom-phanech.  Egyptian  scholars  herein  recognize  the 
Egyptian  word  Psotomfeneh,  meaning  the  "salvation,"  or 
the  "  saviour  of  the  age."  Jerome  translates  it  "  salvator 
mnndi."  Gesenius  makes  the  Egyptian  word — Psontm- 
feneh,  i.  e.  "  sustainer  of  the  age." 

This  custom  of  changing  names,  still  prevails  in  the  East. 
One  of  the  most  striking  instances  is  in  the  case  of  the 
Persian  king  Suffee,  whose  reign  commenced  in  1667.  The 
first  years  of  his  sway  were  marked  by  calamities ;  and  having 
been  persuaded  that  these  were,  in  some  mode,  connected  with 
his  name,  he  changed  it,  and  with  many  solemn  ceremonies, 
assumed  that  of  Solyman.  All  the  seals  and  coins  bearing 
the  name  of  Suffee  were  broken,  as  if  Suffee  were  dead ;  and 
he  was  crowned  anew  by  the  name  of  Solyman.  Here 
doubtless  the  change  was  designed  to  honor  Joseph,  in 
acknowledgment  of  the  obligations  of  Pharaoh  to  him ;  and 
also  to  naturalize  him  as  an  Egyptian.  The  latter  is  an 
important  point,  when  subsequent  events  are  considered. 

Pharaoh  married  Joseph  to  Asenath. 

There  has  been  some  discussion  concerning  this  name. 
The  Hebrew  form,  given  above,  and  the  Septuagint,  Aseneth, 
are  considered  by  Jablonski  as  the  Coptic  compound  word, 
Asshe-neit,  which  he  interprets,  worshipper  of  Neith, 
the  titular  goddess  of  Sais.  Gesenius  supposes  the  name  to 
be  in  Coptic,  Assneith,  signifying  belonging'  to  Neith. 
Champollion,  however,  read  the  name  on  an  Egyptian  relic 
of  enamelled  earth,  in  the  cabinet  of  the  French  king, 
Charles  X. ;  and  he  translated  the  hieroglyphic,  "  belonging 


JOSEPH.  187 

to  Isis"  All  these  explanations  are  rendered  probable  from 
the  fact,  which  we  know,  that  it  was  usual  among  the 
Egyptians  to  make  names,  expressive  of  some  relation  to  their 
gods ;  and  this  was  the  more  likely  to  be  done  in  the  case 
of  a  priest's  daughter.  At  any  rate,  Champollion's  discovery 
shows  that  there  was  such  a  person  as  Asenath. 

She  was  the  "  daughter  of  Potipherah,  priest  of  On." 

The  word  priest,  is  in  the  margin  of  our  version  translated 
also,  prince  ;  and  properly  enough,  because  in  Egypt,  the 
priest  of  one  of  the  cities  was  also  its  prince  or  chief  ruler 
under  Pharaoh,  who  was  not  only  king,  but  also  over  all  the 
priesthood  as  high  priest.  It  is  the  same  name  as  that  we 
have  already  considered,  Potiphar  ;  and  means  "  of,  or  belong- 
ing to  the  sun."  On  (signifying  in  ancient  Coptic  the  sun) 
is  the  same  place  that  is  called  in  Jeremiah  xliii.  13,  Beth- 
shemesh  (house  of  the  sun) :  the  Septuagint  calls  it  in  Greek, 
Heliopolis  (city  of  the  sun) :  the  old  Egyptian  name  Re-ei  or 
Ei-re  is  of  the  same  import,  "  abode  of  the  sun."  It  is  of  great 
antiquity  as  the  monuments  show :  there  is  an  obelisk  there 
bearing  the  name  of  Osirtasen,  showing  that  the  place  must 
have  had  existence  at  a  period  before  the  times  of  Joseph. 
Strabo  speaks  of  the  great  antiquity  of  its  temple  in  his  day. 

It  is  evident  that  Pharaoh,  by  marrying  Joseph  into  an 
Egyptian  family  of  distinction,  meant  to  give  stability  to  the 
new  and  extraordinary  powers  with  which  he  had  invested 
him.  Two  things,  therefore,  may  fairly  be  inferred ;  first, 
that  the  Egyptian  high  priest  occupied  a  very  elevated  position 
of  influence ;  and  next,  that  among  the  Egyptian  priesthood, 
the  most  distinguished  was  the  priest  of  On.  History  con- 
firms l>oth  these  particulars. 

As  to  the  first  point,  Ileeren  remarks:    "The  priesthood 


188  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

belonging  to  each  temple  were  again  organized  among  them- 
selves with  the  greatest  exactness.  They  had  a  high  priest, 
whose  office  was  also  hereditary.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
mention,  that  the  stations  of  the  high  priests  in  the  principal 
cities  in  Egypt  were  first  and  highest.  They  were  in  a 
manner  hereditary  princes,  who  stood  by  the  side  of  the  kings, 
and  enjoyed  almost  the  same  prerogatives.  *****  Their 
statues  were  placed  in  the  temples.  When  they  are  intro- 
duced into  history,  they  appear  as  the  first  persons  of  the 
state." 

As  to  the  second  point,  Herodotus  speaks  of  the  priests  of 
Heliopolis  as  the  most  learned  among  the  Egyptians ;  while 
the  most  ancient  accounts  of  the  city  describe  it  as  not  only 
famous  for  its  temple,  but  as  the  principal  seat  of  learning  in 
Egypt,  and  the  usual  resort  of  foreigners  who  wished  to  learn 
"  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians." 

When  Strabo  visited  the  place,  he  was  shown  the  houses 
in  which  Eudoxus  and  Plato  were  said  to  have  studied 
thirteen  years  under  the  Heliopolite  priests.  It  was  then  a 
deserted  city  ;  for  Cambyses  had  been  there :  and  after  his 
invasion,  it  was  no  longer  the  great  school  of  Egypt.  At  a 
subsequent  day,  Alexandria  became  the  chief  seat  of  Egpytian 
learning. 

But  to  the  Scriptural  account,  according,  as  it  does 
remarkably,  with  what  we  know  to  have  been,  at  that  day, 
the  state  of  things  in  Egypt,  an  objection  is  made  from 
the  usual  source.  A  German  critic  tells  us,  that  "  an  alliance 
of  intolerant  priests  with  a  foreign  shepherd  is  entirely  opposed 
to  the  character  of  the  Egyptians."  Two  facts  are  here  as- 
serted, first,  that  such  a  marriage  could  not  have  taken  place  ; 
and  secondly,  that  the  Egyptians  were  very  intolerant.     The 


JOSEPH.  189 

first  is  an  error,  the  last  a  truth.  The  critic  overlooks  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  preparation  for  this  marriage,  as 
well  as  the  peculiar  relative  position  of  Pharaoh  and  Potiphar. 
Joseph  was  not  married  to  Asenath  while  he  was  a  foreign 
shepherd,  an  obscure  alien ;  but  after  he  had  become  a 
naturalized  Egyptian,  and  assumed  the  Egyptian  dress  and 
name.  Beside,  a  Pharaoh  had  commanded  it,  and  a  Potiphar 
did  not  dare  to  disobey ;  for  he  who  ordered,  possessed  a 
double  sovereignty  over  him  whom  he  commanded.  He  was 
not  only  his  king,  but  he  was  also  the  chief  priest  over  all 
the  priesthood.  As  to  the  intolerance  of  the  Egyptians,  and 
their  assumed  superiority  to  all  strangers,  the  critic  admits  it ; 
and  it  is  strange  that  he  did  not  in  this  very  transaction  find 
one  of  the  strongest  manifestations  of  its  exhibition,  when  even 
a  Pharaoh,  in  overcoming  it,  found  it  necessary  not  only  to 
make  Joseph  a  naturalized  Egyptian,  but  also  to  allay  Egyp- 
tian prejudice,  and  strengthen  Joseph's  hands  by  an  alliance 
with  a  noble  family.  Except  as  an  Egyptian  by  naturaliza- 
tion, and  as  the  husband  of  Asenath,  Egyptian  intolerance 
would  probably  never  have  submitted  to  his  rule.  The  story, 
therefore,  is  in  harmony  with  the  known  historical  fact  of 
Egyptian  conceit  and  intolerance. 

10.  During  the  seven  years  of  plenty,  Joseph  collected  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  and  laid  them  up. 

The  monuments  furnish  numerous  representations,  illus- 
trative and  .confirmatory  of  the  labors  of  Joseph  during  the 
seven  years  of  plenty.  "  In  one  of  the  grottoes  of  Eleithuias, 
a  man  is  depicted  whose  business  it  evidently  was  to  take  an 
account  of  the  number  of  bushels,  which  another  man,  acting 


190 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


under  him,  measures.  The  inscription  over  him  is,  "The 
writer,  or  registrar  of  bushels,  Thutnofre?  Then  follows  the 
transportation  of  the  grain.  From  the  measurer,  others  take 
it  in  sacks  and  carry  it  to  the  storehouses. 

"  At  Beni  Hassan,  in  the  tomb  of  Amenemhe,  there  is  a 
painting  of  a  great  storehouse ;  before  the  door  of  which  lies 
a  large  heap  of  grain,  already  winnowed.  The  measurer  fills 
a  bushel,  in  order  to  pour  it  out  into  the  sacks  of  those  who 
carry  the  grain  to  the  granary.  The  bearers  go  to  the  door 
of  the  storehouse,  and  lay  down  their  sacks  before  an  officer 
who  stands  ready  to  receive  the  corn.  This  is  the  owner  of 
the  storehouse.  Near  by  stands  the  bushel  with  which  it  is 
measured,  and  the  registrar  who  takes  the  account.  At  the 
side  of  the  windows,  there  are  characters  which  indicate  the 
quantity  of  the  mass  which  is  deposited  in  the  magazine." 
(Hengstenberg,  Kitto.) 


Egyptian  granary. 


From  the  cuts,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  granaries  consisted 
of  a  series  of  vaulted  chambers.  The  grain  was  carried  by 
means  of  steps  to  the  top  of  these,  when  it  was  cast  through 
an  opening  at  the  top.     In  the  other  cut,  this  opening  is  seen ; 


JOSEPH. 


191 


as  is  also  the  sliding  door  at  the  bottom  of  the  vault,  by 
which  the  grain  was  removed  when  needed. 


Storing  com. 

In  our  history  we  read :  "  And  Joseph  gathered  corn  as  the 
sand  of  the  sea,  very  much,  until  he  left  numbering?''  An 
illustration  of  this  may  be  found  in  a  cut  on  a  previous 
page,*  representing  the  numberer  as  sitting  on  a  heap  of  corn, 
and  receiving  an  account  from  a  man  standing  below,  who  is 
using  his  hands  to  express  the  numbers. 


11.  The  famine  of  the  seven  years  of  dearth  "  was  over 
all  lands." 

We  have  already  seen,  that  ordinarily,  when  there  was 
famine  in  other  countries  of  the  East,  their  inhabitants  looked 
to  Egypt  for  a  supply  of  food :  but  in  this  instance  the  famine 
reached  Egypt  also.  Hence  it  has  been  said,  that  the  author 
of  the  Pentateuch  proves  himself  to  be  ignorant  of  the  natural 

*  Vide  ante,  page  129. 


192  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

condition  of  Egypt ;  for  that  in  that  country,  a  famine  never 
occurs.  We  will  dispose  of  that  assertion  first.  It  is  boldly 
made,  as  most  of  Von  Bohlen's  assertions  are,  and  betrays  his 
own  ignorance  of  the  subject.  The  truth  is  that  the  swelling 
of  the  Nile  a  few  feet  only  above  or  below  a  certain  point,  is 
alike  destructive  to  the  productions  of  the  country :  and  there 
is  scarcely  a  land  on  the  face  of  the  earth  in  which  famine 
has  raged  so  terribly  as  in  this  very  Egypt ;  or  in  which 
measures,  similar  to  those  adopted  by  Joseph,  could  have  been 
more  needed.  Ordinarily,  the  Nile  is  very  uniform  in  its  rise 
and  fall :  when  it  is  so,  abundance  is  the  result :  but  it  is  not 
always  so  ;  and  as  its  abundance  in  a  favorable  season  is 
probably  beyond  that  of  any  equal  extent  of  cultivated  land 
on  the  globe ;  so,  as  a  counterpoise,  its  famine  in  an  unfavor- 
able year,  exceeds  in  scarcity  that  of  any  other  country  of 
equal  extent.  In  other  lands  watered  by  rains,  the  failure  of 
food  may  not  be  total ;  if  one  crop  fail,  there  still  may  be  a 
chance  left  that  refreshing  rains  will  enable  men  to  make  a 
crop  of  some  other  production,  in  the  course  of  the  season, 
which  will  sustain  life :  but  Egypt  has  no  season  but  one,  no 
watering  of  her  land  but  once  in  the  year ;  and  if  that  fail, 
she  is  utterly  without  resource. 

But  history  on  this  subject  is  explicit  enough.  There  is  a 
writer,  Makrizi,  who  has  found  materials  for  a  whole  volume 
in  the  narratives  of  famines  in  Egypt.  The  accounts  that 
have  come  down  to  us,  are  full  of  horrors.  De  Sacy  gives 
this  relation  from  Abdollatiph,  an  Arabian  writer:  "In  the 
year  569  [of  the  Hegira,  1199  of  our  era],  the  height  of  the 
flood  was  small  almost  without  example.  The  consequence 
was  a  terrible  famine,  accompanied  by  indescribable  enormities. 
Parents  consumed  their  children,  human  flesh  was  in  fact  a 


JOSEPH.  193 

very  common  article  of  food ;  they  contrived  various  ways  of 

preparing  it.     They  spoke  of  it,  and  heard  it  spoken  of,  as  an 

indifferent  affair.     Man-catching  became  a   regular  business. 

The  greater  part  of  the  population  were  swept  away  by  death. 

In  the  following  year,  also,  the  inundation  did  not  reach  the 

proper  height,  and  only  the  low  lands  were  overflowed.     Also 

much  of  that  which  was  inundated  could  not  be  sown  for 

want  of  laborers  and  seed ;  much  was  destroyed  by  worms 

which  devoured  the  seed-corn ;  also  of  the  seed  which  escaped 

this  destruction,  a  great  part  produced  only  meagre  shoots 

which  perished."     Makrizi  gives  an  account  of  a  famine  in 

the  year  457  of  the  Hegira,  not  at  all  less  severe  than  that 

described  above.     So  much  then,  for  the  assertion  that  Egypt 

never  knows  famine. 

But   the  peculiarity  here   is,  not  only  that  Egypt  knew 

famine,  but  that  other  lands  were  simultaneously  suffering. 

This  was   unusual,  though   history  shows   that  there  have 

been  such  occurrences.     Makrizi  describes  a  famine  in  444  of 

the  Hegira,  which,  like  this,  extended  at  the  same  time  over 

Syria,  and  reached   even   to  Bagdad.     Now   (thus   say  the 

objectors),  as  Egypt  derived  her  fertility  from  the  Nile,  and 

other  nations  from  occasional  rains,  it  is  not  probable  that 

there   would   be    a    simultaneous   famine.     Generally   there 

would  not  be  ;  and  yet,  from  known   physical  causes  it  is 

perfectly  obvious  that   such   an   event   might  occur.     Even 

Herodotus  knew  that  the  waters  causing  an  increase  in  the 

Nile,  were  the  result  of  the  tropical  rains  in  the  mountains  of 

Abyssinia.     To  the  quantity  of  water  falling  in  these  rains, 

two  causes  contribute,  which  in  different  years,  may  make 

them  more  or  less.     The  one  cause  is  in  the  formation  of 

rain-clouds  in  Abyssinia  itself,  attracted  by  the  mountains  and 
13 


194  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

discharging  their  contents  on  them :  the  other  cause  (as  has 
been  well  explained  by  Le  Pere  in  the  Descript.  de  VEgpyte) 
is,  that  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year,  a  long-continued  and 
steady  wind,  coming  from  the  north,  blows  over  the  whole 
length  of  Egypt,  as  every  traveller  on  the  Nile  has  reason  to 
know.     This  wind  drives  the  water-clouds  that  are  formed  on 
the  Mediterranean,  and  carries  them  toward  the  high  lands  of 
Abyssinia ;    here,  the  contiguity  of  mountains  produces  the 
usual  effect,  the  clouds  are  attracted,  become  surcharged,  and 
empty  themselves.     Now,  it  is  very  plain,  that  in  some  years 
rain  enough  might  fall  on  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  inde- 
pendent of  any  clouds  from  the  Mediterranean,  to  afford  the 
Nile  a  sufficient  supply ;  in  which  case  Egypt  would  have 
abundance,  though  Syria  and  the  countries  adjacent  to  the 
Mediterranean  might  then  suffer  for  want  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean rains  on  which  they  entirely  depend.     So,  also,  it  is 
ecpiially  plain  that  if  the  Mediterranean  rains  should  from  any 
cause  be  deficient,  and,  at  the  same  time,  less  than  the  usual 
local   rains  of  the  Abyssinian   Mountains   should  fall,  both 
Egypt    and    Syria,    with    other    adjacent    countries,    would 
simultaneously   suffer    from    drought,    and    might    therefore 
simultaneously   experience   famine.     But   whatever  may   be 
the  scientific  explanation  of  such  a  result,  the  fact  stares  us 
in   the  face   that  it  has   actually  occurred.     Now,  had  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch  been  drawing  on  his  invention  for 
the  incidents  of  his   story,  we   scarcely  think   his   scientific 
knowledge  would  have  enabled  him  to  understand  the  natural 
causes  which  made  such  an  event  as  a  simultaneous  famine 
possible ;  and  he  would,  therefore,  have  framed  his  story  to 
suit  the  fact  so  well  known,  in  his  day,  that  Egypt  depended 
for  her  fertility  on  the  river,  and  not  on  local  rains ;  and  con- 


JOSEPH. 


195 


sequently  would  not  have  risked  the  seeming  improbability, 
to  the  men  of  that  time,  of  a  famine,  as  well  in  Egypt  as  out 
of  it.  Therefore,  that  he  does  relate  the  fact  of  such  a  famine 
is,  to  our  mind  at  least,  evidence  that  he  did  not  draw  on  his 
invention. 

12.  Joseph  entertains  his  brethren  on  their  second  visit  to 
Egypt. 

There  is  here,  in  the  Scripture  narrative,  a  somewhat 
minute  enumeration  of  circumstances,  worthy  of  notice. 
Joseph  said,  "Set  on  bread.  And  they  set  on  for  him  by 
himself,  and  for  them  by  themselves,  and  for  the  Egyptians 
which  did  eat  with  him,  by  themselves :  because  the  Egyp- 
tians might  not  eat  bread  with  the  Hebrews ;  for  that  is  an 
abomination  unto  the  Egyptians.  And  they  sat  before  him  : — 
and  he  took  and  sent  messes  unto  them  from  before  him ; 
but  Benjamin's  mess  was  five  times  so  much  as  any  of 
theirs." 

The  refusal  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  to  have  familiar 
intercourse  with  foreigners  in  eating,  is  fully  sustained  by 
history.  Herodotus  remarks  on  it,  and  assigns  as  one  reason, 
that  strangers  ate  food  which  the  Egyptians  deemed  sacred. 
This  feeling  was  carried  very  far :  "  Neither  will  any  man  or 
woman  among  them  kiss  a  Grecian,  nor  use  a  knife,  or  spit, 
or  any  domestic  utensil  belonging  to  a  Greek  ;  nor  will  they 
eat  even  the  flesh  ^f  such  beasts  as  by  their  law  are  pure,  if  it 
has  been  cut  with  a  Grecian  knife/'  In  setting  on  for  Joseph 
"by  himself,"  they  but  paid  the  respect  due  to  his  rank;  for 
they  doubtless  considered  him  as  one  of  their  own  ]>eople, 
which  by  naturalization  he  was:  but  not  so  with  his  brethren. 
The  monuments  show  the  customs  in  eating,  and  from  these 


196 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


it  will  be  seen  how  matters,  on  this  occasion,  were  probably 
arranged.  A  small  table  was  appropriated,  either  to  each 
guest  singly,  or  to  each  couple  of  them. 


The  customs  of  Persia,  at  this  day,  illustrate  this.     The 
dishes  are  not  brought  in  successively  during  the  course  of  an 


liiinuiumiiiiai 


Mmnmmmmfflwsmr 


JOSEPH. 


199 


for  conveying  his  father  and  household.  The  original  word, 
in  the  Hebrew,  may  fairly  be  rendered  "wagons."  With 
some  small  exception,  it  may  be 
said,  that  wheel-carriages  are 
not  now  employed  in  Western 
Asia,  or  Africa ;  but  the  ancient 
Egyptians  used  them,  and  they 
were  also  used  in  what  is  now 
Turkey  in  Asia.  The  war- 
chariot  was  very  common  in 
Egypt.  But  the  monuments 
show  also,  a  species  of  light- 
covered  cart  or  wagon,  which 
it  is  supposed  were  not  of 
Egyptian  origin,  but  taken  from 
some  nomade  people  who  fled 
before  them  in  war.  With 
these,  probably,  Joseph  was  fur- 
nished. They  seem  not  to  have 
been  used  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Palestine,  and  yet  to  have 
been  known  to  them  as  a  con- 
venience resorted  to  in  Egypt; 
for  when  Jacob  saw  those  which 
Joseph  sent,  he  knew,  at  once, 
that  they  must  have  come  from 
Egypt ;  and  they  furnished  to 
him  confirmation  of  the  story 
of  his  sons. 


14.   The  arrival  of  the  father  and  brethren  of  Joseph  in 
Egypt,  and  their  settlement  in  Goshen. 

In  one  of  the  tombs  at  Beni  Hassan,  there  is  a  representa- 


200 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


tion  of  an  interesting  nature,  which  by  some  has  been,  too 
hastily  we  think,  considered  as  a  sculptured  story  of  the 
arrival  of  Jacob  and  his  household,  and  their  presentation  to 
Pharaoh.     We  subjoin  a  copy  of  it  in  part,  and  remark  that 


sfcir^i-i 


'VWfc.'fe.W&'i  \K\  .^  3 . 


MKjL 


n  n   n 
ii 


JOSEPH.  201 

though  it  may  not  afford  any  testimony  to  the  particular 
event  we  are  considering,  yet  it  is  evidence  illustrative  of  our 
subject  in  general. 

Here  it  will  be  seen  that  two  persons,  seemingly  in  office, 
and  indicating,  both  by  physiognomy  and  costume,  that  they 
are  Egyptians,  appear  to  be  conducting  those  who  follow 
them  into  the  presence  of  Pharaoh,  or  one  of  his  principal 
officers  (who  is  not  seen  in  the  drawing).  The  hieroglyphical 
inscriptions  show  who  they  are.  The  first  holding  out  the 
tablet,  reads  "  the  royal  scribe,  Nofropth  ;"  the  second  is  "  the 
president  of  the  treasury,  Roti."  The  tablet  held  forth  by 
the  scribe  is  dated  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  king 
to  whom  it  is  presented ;  and  sets  forth  that  certain  indi- 
viduals, either  as  such,  or  as  the  representatives  of  nations, 
had  been  taken  captive.  The  number  thirty-seven  is  written 
over  them  in  hieroglyphics.  It  is  necessary  to  observe  parti- 
cularly the  appearance  of  these  captives.  The  profile  differs 
from  that  of  the  Egyptians  ;  the  nose  and  chin  both  project, 
and  the  former  is  aquiline.  In  the  original  the  complexion 
was  yellow,  the  hair  and  beard  black ;  and  the  latter  much 
more  abundant  than  on  an  Egyptian  face.  The  first  figure 
in  the  line  of  captives,  is  a  man  clad  in  a  rich  tunic  :  he  holds 
a  gazelle,  and  is  followed  by  an  attendant  leading  another. 
He  holds  also  in  his  hand,  the  horn  of  some  animal,  and  is 
making  a  low  obeisance  to  the  king.  His  name  and  title  are 
written  in  hieroglyphics  before  him :  the  upper  group,  accord- 
ing to  Osborn,  reads  hik — king,  chief  [of  J  "  the  land."  The 
group  below  I  ]  I  is  letter  for  letter  the  transcription  of 

the  Hebrew  word  ^ot1,  which  is  rendered  in  the  English  Bible, 
Jebusites.    The  meaning  seems,  therefore,  to  be  "  chief  of  the 


202  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

land  of  the  Jebusites,"  which  bordered  on  the  deserts,  and  in 
which  the  gazelle  abounded. 

Immediately  following  the  first  two,  are  four  men;  the 
first  carrying  a  bow,  the  last  a  spear,  and  the  two  between 
each  with  a  club :  their  dress  shows  them  to  be  of  some  rank, 
and  they  have  sandals  on  their  feet.  Next  comes  an  ass, 
bearing  a  package  or  pannier,  tied  with  cords ;  within  are 
two  children,  and  on  the  top  a  shield.  These  children  are 
probably  hostages  ;  as  are  also  the  boy  and  four  women,  who 
follow  next.  All  of  these  are  richly  dressed,  and  wear  boots 
reaching  above  the  ankles  to  protect  them  from  the  burning 
sands  of  the  desert.  Another  ass,  loaded  with  spears  and 
shields,  is  next ;  then  a  man,  playing  with  the  plectrum  upon 
an  instrument  closely  resembling  the  Grecian  lyre.  The  case 
is  slung  at  his  back.  The  last  figure  carries  a  bow,  quiver 
and  war  club,  and  is  probably  the  bow-bearer  of  the  first  or 
some  of  the  other  personages.  Such  a  figure  is  often  repre- 
sented in  the  reliefs  on  the  temples. 

The  beards  are  remarkable,  because  though  common  in 
the  East,  the  Egyptians  did  not  wear  them ;  and  in  the  sculp- 
tures generally,  they  are  used  as  one  of  the  characteristic 
peculiarities  of  foreign  and  uncivilized  nations. 

In  the  inscription  the  word  "  captives "  is  used,  and  this 
has  led  to  some  difficulty  in  the  interpretation  of  the  scene. 
Wilkinson  at  first  supposed,  from  the  use  of  this  word,  that  it 
was  a  representation  of  ordinary  prisoners  taken  by  the 
Egyptians  in  war :  he  afterward  modified  this  opinion,  and 
remarked  that  "  the  contemptuous  expressions  common  to  the 
Egyptians  in  speaking  of  foreigners,  might  account  for  the  use 
of  this  word."  They  probably  are  not  "captives"  in  the 
common  sense  of  that  term.     Most  of  the  captives  that  are 


JOSEPH.  203 

seen  on  the  monuments,  are  represented  as  bound,  with  then 
limbs  in  the  most  painful  positions.  Beside,  these  have  arms 
and  are  playing  on  musical  instruments ;  two  things,  which, 
according  to  all  the  representations  in  Egypt,  are  incompatible 
with  the  fact  of  their  being  captives.  Rosellini,  on  the 
ground  of  the  inscription  alone,  supposed  them  to  be  cap- 
tives. He,  however,  gives  a  copy  from  a  representation  of 
"  some  foreign  slaves,  sent  by  king  Osirtasen  II.  as  a  present 
to  a  military  chieftain." 

Such  may  be  the  story  told  here ;  for  the  individual  to 
whom  these  persons  are  presented,  is  not,  according  to  Wil- 
kinson, the  king  himself,  but  one  of  his  officers.  If  we  may 
venture  to  give  our  own  interpretation,  we  should  say  that 
they  are  either  the  representatives  of  some  distant  and  subju- 
gated people,  bringing  their  customary  tribute  as  vassals ;  or 
they  are  "  strangers,"  coming  to  ask  an  abode  in  Egpyt,  and 
seeking  to  enforce  their  petition  by  gifts.  Of  this  latter 
custom,  we  find  evidence  in  the  monuments.  Although, 
therefore,  we  do  not  believe  that  the  coming  of  Jacob  and 
his  sons  is  here  storied,  yet  the  sculpture  is  valuable  for  two 
purposes ;  first,  as  confirming  the  Scripture  history  as  to  the 
existence  and  condition  of  the  Jebusites  ;  and  secondly,  as 
proof  that  emigration  with  women  and  children,  and  formal 
admission  of  them  into  Egypt  as  inhabitants,  took  place  in 
the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any  certain  knowledge : 
and  with  this,  the  story  of  Jacob's  coming  agrees. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Joseph  informed  his  father  and 
brethren,  on  their  arriva1,  that,  with  a  view  to  their  settlement 
in  Goshen,  he  would  tell  Pharaoh  that  they  were  "  shepherds," 
and  had  brought  with  them  "  their  flocks  and  their  herds :" 
and  he  instructed  them  to  say  the  same  thing  to  Pharaoh, 


204  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

adding, — "  that  ye  may  dwell  in  the  land  of  Goshen  ;  for 
every  shepherd  is  an  abomination  to  the  Egyptians."  After 
this  Joseph  presented  five  of  them  to  the  king,  of  whom  his 
father  was  one :  "  And  Pharaoh  said  unto  his  brethren,  What 
is  your  occupation?  And  they  said  unto  Pharaoh,  Thy 
servants  are  shepherds,  both  we  and  our  fathers.  They  said, 
moreover,  unto  Pharaoh :  For  to  sojourn  in  the  land  are  we 
come ;  for  thy  servants  have  no  pasture  for  their  flocks ;  for 
the  famine  is  sore  in  the  land  of  Canaan :  now,  therefore,  we 
pray  thee,  let  thy  servants  dwell  in  the  land  of  Goshen." 
Pharaoh  granted  their  request. 

Here  we  must  fix  our  attention  upon  two  facts  distinctly 
stated.  First,  that  "every  shepherd  was  an  abomination  to 
the  Egyptians :"  and  secondly,  that  these  shepherds  were 
settled  in  Goshen.  As  to  the  first,  our  readers  will  remember 
that  in  speaking  of  Abraham,  we  showed  that  though  his  was 
a  pastoral  calling,  yet  in  his  day,  no  objection  was  made  to 
him  on  that  account ;  and  we  endeavored  to  show  that  the 
cause  of  this  was  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  a  race  of 
invading  shepherds,  governed  by  "  shepherd  kings,"  then 
had  sway  in  Lower  Egypt,  where  Abraham  was.  But  now, 
in  the  same  locality,  we  find  the  state  of  feeling  entirely 
changed ;  and  we  will  add,  in  passing,  that  the  truth  of  the 
statement  we  are  now  considering,  is  confirmed  by  hundreds 
of  representations,  to  be  gathered  from  the  monuments.  As 
if  to  show  their  utter  contempt  of  them,  the  artists,  both  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  delighted,  on  all  occasions,  in  repre- 
senting shepherds  as  dirty  and  unshaven ;  and  caricatured 
them  as  a  deformed  and  unseemly  race.  Sometimes,  they 
were  delineated,  as  were  the  captives  taken  in  war,  on  the 
soles  of  their  sandals  ;  that  they  might  express  the  fulness  of 


JOSEPH.  205 

habitual  contempt  by  treading  them  under  their  feet.     So 
much  for  the  fact  of  the  "  abomination." 

In  the  absence  of  all  other  testimony  but  the  simple  fact 
of  the  different  feeling  toward  shepherds,  in  the  days  of  Abra- 
ham and  in  those  of  Joseph,  we  should,  if  required  to  account 
for  it,  naturally  conclude  that  events  had  transpired,  in  the 
interval  of  time  between  these  two  personages,  which  in  some 
way  were  connected  with  shepherds,  and  by  some  means  had 
created  an  aversion  toward  them  in  the  ruling  powers. 
And  here,  actual  history  comes  in  and  confirms  this  conclu- 
sion. It  is  not  our  purpose  to  weary  the  reader  with  the 
uninteresting  details  of  our  chronological  research  :  we  must, 
therefore,  for  the  present,  content  ourselves  with  the  statement, 
that  the  result  of  it  has  been  the  satisfactory  establishment,  to 
our  own  minds  at  least,  of  the  fact,  that  the  "  shepherd  kings," 
of  whom  we  spoke  in  the  chapter  on  Abraham,  and  who  ruled 
in  his  day,  were  expelled  from  their  last  stronghold  in  Egypt, 
and  the  native  sovereigns  had  again  obtained  sway,  just  before 
Joseph  was  brought  down  and  sold  as  a  slave  in  Egypt. 
That  these  shepherd  kings  and  their  followers  (Manetho's 
fable  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding)  never  were  invited 
back  by  the  pretended  leprous  followers  of  Moses,  and  never 
did  come  back ;  that  the  Egyptians,  on  the  re-establishment 
of  a  native  dynasty,  under  a  sense  of  national  humiliation 
to  which  they  had  been  subjected  by  a  foreign  yoke,  not  only 
cordially  hated  all  shepherds,  but  looked  on  all  pastoral  people 
with  distrust  and  suspicion  ;  that  Joseph  himself,  had  he  come 
down  avowedly  as  a  shepherd,  would  have  fared  accordingly ; 
but  he  was  brought  as  a  slave,  sold  as  a  slave,  with  little  of 
interest,  and  less  of  inquiry,  as  to  his  origin ;  that  rising  by 
degrees,  by  a  providential  combination  of  circumstances,  in 


206  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

the  fulfilment  of  God's  purposes,  he  had  become  a  naturalized 
Egyptian,  of  strong  family  alliance  and  of  great  power ;  and 
that  he  did  not  suffer  from  this  aversion  to  shepherds ;  be- 
cause no  man  in  Egypt  ever  could  have  known  him  as  a 
shepherd  boy ;  and  none  probably  knew  of  his  alliance  with 
a  shepherd  race,  until  the  strange  news  was  rumored  in  the 
palace,  "Joseph's  brethren  have  come."  The  aversion  to 
shepherds,  therefore,  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings,  is  to 
our  minds  one  of  the  strong  proofs  of  the  truth  of  the  story ; 
for  history,  we  think,  furnishes  a  full  and  satisfactory  expla- 
nation of  that  aversion,  in  the  existence  of  adequate  causes  for 
it ;  which  causes  perfectly  synchronize  with  the  true  date  of 
events,  recorded  in  our  Scriptural  narrative. 

Of  this  national  aversion  to  shepherds,  Joseph  took  a  wise 
advantage,  in  the  settlement  of  his  father  and  brethren : — 
"  Say  (thus  he  directed  them),  thy  servants'  trade  hath  been 
about  cattle  from  our  youth,  even  until  now,  both  we,  and 
also  our  fathers :  that  ye  may  dwell  in  the  land  of  Goshen." 

Now  where,  and  in  what  condition  was  this  land  of 
Goshen  ?  The  Pentateuch  is  not  a  formal  treatise  on  geog- 
raphy ;  it  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that  it  does  not  give  us 
a  minute  and  direct  account  of  the  situation  of  this  land. 
But  it  is  very  gratifying  to  remark  that  it  incidentally  fur- 
nishes so  many  particulars  concerning  it  as  fully  enable  us  to 
identify  its  locality ;  and  that  facts  so  fully  substantiate  what, 
at  first  view,  would  seem  to  be  discrepancies  in  these  particu- 
lars, that  the  very  references  to  Goshen  conclusively  show 
that  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  (no  matter  now  who  he 
may  have  been)  possessed  a  most  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
topography  of  the  country  about  which  he  was  writing.  He 
was  not  dependent  on  uncertain  reports  for  his  information.    He 


JOSEPH.  207 

had  seen,  and  knew  for  himself;  and  on  no  other  principle 
can  we  explain  the  fact  that  all  his  allusions  to  the  position 
and  nature  of  the  land  are  sustained  by  its  actual  geography, 
without  the  slightest  reference  to  any  imaginary  region.  A 
study  of  the  whole  subject,  will  (as  Hengstenberg  has 
remarked)  impress  conviction  on  the  impartial  mind  that  the 
writer  of  the  Pentateuch  "  wrote  from  personal  observation, 
with  the  freedom  and  confidence  of  one  to  whom  the  informa- 
tion communicated  comes  naturally  and  of  its  own  accord ; 
and  from  one  who  has  not  obtained  it  for  a  proposed  object." 
Let  us  first  look  at  the  supposed  discrepancies. 

It  would  appear,  on  the  one  hand,  that  it  was  the  eastern 
border-land  of  EgpytP  "  And  he  [Jacob]  sent  Judah  before 
him  unto  Joseph,  to  direct  his  face  unto  Goshen."  Gen.  xlvi. 
28.     Now,  Jacob  came  from  the  East. 

Jacob  did  not  receive  any  instructions  or  orders  from 
Joseph,  until  he  had  reached  Goshen :  this  shows  it  to  have 
been  the  border  of  the  country  on  the  eastern  side. 

Joseph  tells  Pharaoh,  that  his  father  and  brethren  were  in 
Goshen.  There  they  were  obliged,  in  conformity  with  Egyp- 
tian custom,  to  abide  until  they  had  permission  to  enter 
Egypt.     This  shows  it  to  have  been  on  the  eastern  border. 

Tell  Pharaoh,  says  Joseph  to  his  relations,  that  your  business 
through  your  lives  has  been  about  cattle  ;  and  he  gives  them 
this  reason  for  it: — "that  ye  may  dwell  in  the  land  of  Goshen; 
for  every  shepherd  is  an  abomination  to  the  Egyptians."  Un- 
less Goshen  were  a  frontier  province,  what  force  would  there 
have  been  in  this  reason?  If  it  were,  then  the  Israelites 
would  not  be  brought  into  close  contact  with  the  great  mass 
of  Egypt's  inhabitants,  to  whom  they  were  an  "  abomination." 

When  Moses  led  the  children  of  Israel  out,  they  went  east- 


208  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

ward.  They  departed  from  the  chief  town  of  this  very  land. 
In  two  days,  they  had  reached  the  confines  of  the  Arabian 
desert.  This  shows  that  Goshen  must  have  been  the  eastern 
boundary. 

But  again,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  incidental  passages 
about  Goshen,  which  represent  it  as  lying  immediately  around 
the  chief  city  of  Egypt ;  for  Joseph,  who  must  then  have  lived 
in  the  principal  city,  says :  "  And  thou  shalt  dwell  in  the 
land  of  Goshen,  and  thou  shalt  be  near  to  me."     Gen.  xlv.  10. 

What  was  the  chief  city  of  Egypt  in  that  day?  The 
Pentateuch  nowhere  expressly  tells  us.  But  perhaps  it  fur- 
nishes data,  by  which  to  determine  it.  The  whole  Pentateuch 
shows  in  a  general  manner,  that  the  abode  of  royalty  then, 
was  somewhere  in  Lower  Egypt.  Tanis,  the  Zoan  of  Scrip- 
ture, we  have  already  seen  was  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of 
Egypt ;  for  it  was  there  in  Abraham's  day,  and  was  then 
of  some  note  and  considered  as  a  sort  of  standard  with  which 
to  compare  other  cities :  "  And  Hebron  was  built  seven  years 
before  Zoan  in  Egypt."  Numb.  xiii.  22.  The  monuments 
there,  show  that  Tanis  existed  in  the  times  of  Rameses  the 
Great.  When  Moses  performed  his  miracles  before  the  Pha- 
raoh, who  refused  to  let  the  Israelites  go,  where  was  the 
residence  of  that  Pharaoh  ?  At  his  chief  city.  Where  were 
the  miracles  wrought  ?  Let  the  Bible  answer :  "  Marvellous 
things  did  he  in  the  sight  of  their  fathers,  in  the  land  of 
Egypt,  in  the  field  of  Zoan."  Psalm  lxxviii.  1 2.  "  How  he 
had  wrought  his  signs  in  Egypt,  and  his  wonders  in  the  field 
of  Zoan.  And  had  turned  their  rivers  into  blood,"  &c. 
Psalm  lxxviii.  43,  et  seq. 

On  the  supposition  that  Tanis  or  Zoan  was  the  chief  city ; 
we  ask,  Was  it  in  or  near  Goshen?    The  question  will  be 


JOSEPH.  209 

answered  by  a  reply  to  the  inquiry  whether  Moses  and  his 
parents  were  Israelites  ;  for  if  they  were,  they  lived  in  Goshen. 
Now,  where  was  Moses  found  ?  On  the  banks  of  the  Nile, 
where  the  king's  daughter  was  accustomed  to  walk  and  to 
bathe.  And  his  parents  lived  near,  for  his  sister  watched  to 
see  what  would  become  of  him,  and  ran,  not  far,  to  bring  his 
mother  as  a  nurse.  It  only  remains  to  ask,  where  must  have 
been  the  home  of  Pharaoh's  daughter?  And  the  obvious 
answer  is,  in  the  palace  of  her  father,  in  the  chief  city  of 
his  kingdom.  And  thus,  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  facts 
gathered  from  Scripture,  it  is  plain  that  Goshen  might  have 
included  or  was  not  far  from  Tanis ;  and  that  Joseph's  father 
and  brethren  might  have  lived  in  Goshen,  and  yet  not  been 
very  distant  from  him  in  Tanis.  There  is  not  here,  then, 
necessarily,  any  discrepancy. 

But  if  it  should  be  thought  that  Tanis  or  Zoan  was  not 
the  chief  city,  and  On  or  Heliopolis  should  be  considered  the 
residence  of  Joseph,  still  would  his  relations,  living  in  Goshen, 
have  been  near  to  him ;  for  this  land  lay  along  the  Pelusiac  or 
most  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile ;  as  it  is  evident  that  the  Isra- 
elites, on  being  led  out  by  Moses,  nowhere  crossed  the  Nile  ; 
and  thus  Goshen  would  have  included  a  part  of  the  nome  of 
Heliopolis,  of  which  On  was  the  capital. 

But  again :  the  land  of  Goshen  is  described  in  Scripture  as 
a  pasture  ground.  It  was  for  the  sake  of  its  good  pasture  that 
Jacob  and  his  sons  asked  to  be  placed  there. 

It  is  also,  on  ihe  other  hand,  spoken  of  as  a  region  of 

arable  land.     "  And  he  [Joseph]  gave  them  a  possession  in 

the  land  of  Egypt,  in  the  best  of  the  land,  in  the  land  of 

Rameses."   Gen.  xlvii.  2.     And  we  know  that  the  Israelites 
14 


210  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

while  in  Egypt  did  cultivate  the  land,  and  obtained  an  abun- 
dance of  its  agricultural  products. 

Is  there  here  a  real  discrepancy?  Goshen,  according  to 
Hales,  in  which  he  is  sustained  by  the  best  authorities, 
"  stretched  along  the  Bubastic  or  Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile, 
and  formed  the  eastern  barrier  of  Egypt,  toward  Palestine  and 
Arabia,  the  quarters  from  which  they  most  dreaded  invasion." 
It  therefore  comprised  a  tract  of  country  very  various  in  its 
nature ;  part  of  it  arable,  and  part  pasture  lands.  There  is 
even  at  this  day,  in  the  interior  of  ancient  Goshen,  a  large 
tract  of  land  good  for  tillage,  and  fruitful.  A  valley  stretches 
through  the  whole  breadth  of  it ;  and,  according  to  Le  Pere, 
this  whole  tract,  from  the  ancient  Bubastis  on  the  Pelusiac 
branch  of  the  Nile,  to  the  entrance  of  the  Wady  Tumilat,  is 
now  under  full  cultivation,  and  annually  overflowed  by  the 
river.  It  had  also  good  pasture  lands,  so  that  it  combined  the 
peculiarities  of  both  Arabia  and  Egypt. 

Michaelis  intimates  that  it  was  not  probable  the  king  of 
Egypt  would  give  to  these  shepherds  "  the  best  of  the  land." 
But,  adverting  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  there  would 
seem  to  be  nothing  very  surprising  in  his  so  doing.  This 
very  Goshen  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the  shepherd  kings 
who,  but  a  few  years  before  Joseph  came,  had  been  driven  out ; 
and  daring  the  greater  part  of  their  abode  in  Egypt,  it  was  their 
chief  settlement.  It  was  not  long,  since  they  had  been  driven 
out.  The  Egyptians  needed  it  but  little  for  pastoral  purposes, 
and  it  was  consequently  but  sparsely  peopled.  In  permitting 
the  Hebrews  to  occupy  it,  therefore,  not  only  was  no  one 
dispossessed,  but  the  new  comers  were  fixed  in  the  only 
unoccupied  part  of  Egypt  adapted  to  their  calling ;  were  kept 
in  a  very  great  degree  apart  from  the  Egyptians ;  and  above 


JOSEPH.  211 

all,  formed,  on  the  defenceless  side  of  Egypt,  the  barrier  of  a 
brave  and  numerous  people,  occupying  as  it  were  the  gateway 
to  the  kingdom,  through  which  the  invading  hordes  of  the 
desert,  and  of  the  East  generally,  always  passed  on  their  war- 
like and  predatory  incursions.  Whatever  it  might  have  been 
to  the  Hebrews,  in  their  peculiar  avocation,  to  Pharaoh  it  was 
not  "  the  best  of  the  land  ;"  and  even  had  it  been,  its  surrender 
was  fully  compensated  by  the  additional  security  which  the 
rest  of  the  kingdom  obtained  from  its  occupancy  by  the 
Hebrews.  The  story  of  the  Bible  is  altogether  probable,  and 
certainly  in  harmony  with  known  facts  in  Egypt. 

15.  Jacob  dies,  and  is  embalmed  by  Joseph's  physicians 
at  his  command. 

The  language  implies  that  Joseph  had  among  his  servants, 
many  who  were  physicians.  This  is  in  entire  conformity 
with  what  we  know  of  Egyptian  customs.  From  Herodotus 
we  learn  that  the  faculty  in  Egypt  was  very  numerous ;  and 
that  no  doctor  was  allowed  to  practise  in  more  than  one 
branch  of  the  profession.  Some  were  oculists  ;  others  at- 
tended to  diseases  of  the  head  only ;  others,  solely  to  intes- 
tinal maladies,  &c.  Nor  was  the  profession  deficient  in  skill, 
or  in  a  reputation  which  reached  beyond  Egypt.  As  to  skill, 
they  took  the  best  mode  to  obtain  it ;  for  Pliny  tells  us  that 
they  made  jwst  mortem  examinations ;  and  this,  by  the  way, 
we  think,  is  the  first  historical  evidence  we  have  of  such  a 
practice.  They  studied  also  the  nature  and  properties  of 
drugs  ;  for  Homer,  in  his  Odyssey,  describes  Egypt  as  a 
country  producing  many  drugs,  some  salutary,  others  perni- 
cious ;  and  tells  us  that  every  physician  there  possessed 
knowledge  above  other  men. 


212  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

As  to  their  reputation  abroad,  we  learn  from  the  third  book 
of  Herodotus  (Thalia)  that  Cyrus  had  a  physician  sent  to  him 
from  Egypt,  and  that  Darius  also  had  Egyptian  physicians 
about  him.  Indeed,  to  those  curious  in  such  investigations, 
Egypt  affords  a  chapter  of  no  small  interest  in  the  history  of 
the  progress  of  medical  science. 

The  physicians,  or  a  portion  of  them,  were  the  embalmers  ; 
these  embalmers  were  a  hereditary  class  in  Egypt,  according 
to  the  later  classical  writers.  Both  statements  are  true.  The 
first  relates  to  the  most  ancient,  and  the  latter  to  modern  times. 
The  monuments  show  that  embalming  was  a  very  ancient 
usage  of  Egypt.  Mummies,  also,  have  been  found  bearing  the 
date  of  the  oldest  kings.  It  is  probable  the  custom  originated 
in  Egypt,  and  was  founded  on  their  religious  belief  that  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  soul  in  the  region  of  happiness  was  dependent 
on  the  preservation  of  the  body.  Some  have  thought  that  a 
physical  notion  may  have  also  had  its  influence.  Egypt  is 
annually,  for  three  months,  under  water,  and  is  at  the  same 
time  exposed  to  a  burning  sun.  It  is  therefore  important  that 
all  decomposition  of  animal  matter  should,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, be  prevented.  Hence  inferior  animals  were  embalmed. 
The  practice,  it  is  said,  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  preaching  of 
St.  Anthony  and  other  Eremitic  fathers  who,  in  their  zeal,  de- 
nounced it  as  idolatrous.  With  this,  some  significantly  con- 
nect the  fact,  that,  since  the  conversion  of  Egypt  to  Christianity, 
the  plague,  which  was  utterly  unknown  in  ancient  times,  now 
commonly  makes  its  annual  appearance  on  the  subsidence  of 
the  Nile :  and  that  its  first  introduction  may  be  historically 
traced  to  a  period  somewhere  about  the  time  of  the  successful 
effort  of  St.  Anthony  and  his  confreres  against  embalming. 
In  such  a  discussion, 


JOSEPH. 


213 


"  Non  nobis,  tantas  componere  lites."* 

"  And  forty  days  were  fulfilled  for  him  ;  for  so  are  fulfilled  the 
days  of  those  which  are  embalmed :  and  the  Egyptians 
mourned  for  him  threescore  and  ten  days."  Gen.  1.  3. 

The  author  here  mentions  two  numbers,  forty  and  seventy  ; 
the  latter,  doubtless,  including 
the  former  as  a  part  of  it 
The  meaning,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  best  writers,  is 
that  the  whole  period  of  the 
mourning  embraced  seventy 
days,  of  which  the  process  of 
embalming  occupied  forty; 
and  with  this,  the  statements 
both  of  Herodotus  and  Diodo- 
rus  may  be  reconciled. 

Mourning  for  the  dead, 
among  the  Egyptians,  and 
especially  when  the  deceased 
was  of  high  rank,  was  a  very 
solemn  ceremony.  Herodo- 
tus says,  "  with  respect  to 
their  funerals  and  ceremonies 
of  mourning ;  whenever  a 
man  of  any  importance  dies, 
the  females  of  his  family,  dis- 
figuring their  heads  and  faces 
vith  dirt,  leave  the  corpse  in 
the  house,  run  publicly  about, 
accompanied  by  their  female 

*  On  this  subject  of  embalming,  see  Wilkinson,  Vol.  V.  chap.  xvi. 


214  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

relations,  with  their  garments  in  disorder ;  their  breasts  exposed, 
and  beating  themselves  severely :  the  men,  on  their  parts,  do 
the  same."  Diodorus  says :  "  If  any  one  dies  among  them, 
all  his  relatives  and  friends  cover  their  heads  with  mud,  and 
go  about  the  streets  with  loud  lamentations,  until  the  body 
is  buried.  In  the  meantime,  they  neither  use  baths,  nor  even 
take  wine,  or  any  other  than  common  food ;  they  also  do  not 
put  on  beautiful  garments."  On  the  previous  page,  may  be 
seen  the  representation  of  a  solemn  act  of  mourning,  copied 
from  the  monuments. 

We  must  not  here  omit  a  seemingly  slight  circumstance, 
but  really  important,  as  indicating  a  very  familiar  acquaint- 
ance on  the  part  of  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  with 
Egyptian  usages.  He  has  written,  "  And  when  the  days  of 
his  [Israel's]  mourning  were  past,  Joseph  spake  unto  the  house 
of  Pharaoh,  saying,  If  now  I  have  found  grace  in  your  eyes, 
speak,  I  pray  you,  in  the  ears  of  Pharaoh,  saying,"  &c.  Gen.  1. 
4.  It  will  hardly  be  suspected  that  in  writing  these  words,  the 
author  supposed  he  was  furnishing  incidental  testimony  to  his 
own  truth,  when  it  should  be  called  in  question  at  a  future 
day  ;  and  yet  it  is  such  testimony.  Why  did  not  Joseph  go  in 
person  to  Pharaoh  to  speak  for  himself,  as  we  have  seen  he  did 
on  the  occasion  of  his  father's  and  brothers'  arrival  in  Egypt  ? 
Herodotus,  speaking  of  the  customs  of  Egypt,  tells  us  that 
"  it  is  elsewhere  customary,  in  case  of  death,  for  those  who  are 
most  nearly  affected  to  cut  off  their  hair  in  testimony  of  sor- 
row ;  but  the  Egyptians,  who,  at  other  times,  have  their  heads 
closely  shorn,  suffer  the  hair  on  this  occasion  to  grow  on  both 
head  and  chin."  Joseph  was  now  mourning,  consequently  his 
hair  and  beard  were  both  apparent,  and  in  that  condition,  he 
knew  that  Egyptian  etiquette  and  propriety  did  not  allow  of 


JOSEPH.  215 

his  appearance  before  the  sovereign.     He  could  not  now  shave, 
as  he  did  when  summoned  from  the  prison. 

1(3.  Joseph  died,  and  they  embalmed  him,  and  he  was  put 
in  a  coffin  in  Egypt. 

The  particular  mention  of  a  coffin  seems  here  to  imply  a 
distinction.  Coffins  have  never  been  much  used  in  the  East, 
though  royal  personages  have  sometimes  been  put  in  stone 
sarcophagi.  Coffins,  however,  were  more  common  in  Egypt 
than  elsewhere ;  but  still  the  common  people  were,  for  the 
most  part,  obliged  to  dispense  with  them,  and  were  merely 
swathed  in  wrappers  with  bandages.  The  original  word  used 
here  (aron)  denotes  that  the  coffin  was  of  wood;  and  we 
know  that  sometimes  persons  of  wealth  and  distinction  had 
two,  three,  or  even  four :  one  within  the  other.  Herodotus 
particularly  describes  the  Egyptian  coffin;  and  those  found, 
we  believe,  have  generally  been  of  sycamore. 

It  has  been  objected,  that  the  writer  of  the  sacred  history 
proves  himself  to  have  been  ignorant  of  Egyptian,  usages, 
because  he  makes  the  body  of  Joseph  to  be  deposited  in  a 
coffin  ;  and  it  is  said  that  one  of  his  rank  would  have  occu- 
pied a  sarcophagus  of  stone.  The  very  fact  of  his  being  put 
in  a  coffin  of  wood  confirms  the  story ;  for  such  were  in 
general  use,  while  those  of  stone  were  appropriated  to  royal 
personages.  Beside,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  body  of 
Joseph  was  to  be  transported  from  Egypt,  and  this  circum 
stance  alone  would  have  indicated  the  propriety  of  placing  his 
remains  in  a  coffin  of  wood. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE      BONDAGE. 


After  the  death  of  Joseph,  sixty-five  years  elapsed  before 
the  birth  of  Moses,  according  to  the  chronology  of  Dr.  Hales. 
The  author  of  the  Pentateuch  distinctly  informs  us  that 
during  this  interval  all  the  sons  of  Jacob,  and  the  men  of  their 
generation,  had  died ;  and  toward  the  latter  part  of  the 
interval  above  named,  the  fact  meets  us  that  "  there  arose  up 
a  new  king  over  Egypt,  which  knew  not  Joseph."  This  is  a 
particular  of  Egyptian  history,  in  the  explanation  of  which 
confusion  has  arisen,  from  the  fabrication  of  the  pretended 
Manetho  about  the  leprous  Israelites  under  Moses,  and  their 
recall  of  the  shepherd  kings,  to  which  we  have  already 
adverted.  Some  have  thought  that  the  monarch  of  this  new 
dynasty  was  the  first  sovereign  furnished  on  the  re-intrusion 
of  the  pastoral  invaders.  In  opposition  to  this  opinion,  we 
are  met  by  the  fact  that  these  shepherds  are  represented  by 
Manetho  (the  only  authority  for  the  return  of  the  shepherds 
at  all,)  as  coming  back  on  the  invitation  of  the  Israelites  ; 
the  shepherds,  therefore,  were  not  likely  to  become  their 
oppressors.  But  further,  according  to  Manetho,  the  Israelites 
were  not  oppressed  during  this  supposed  second  period  of 
pastoral  sway,  but,  in  conjunction  with  the  shepherds,  were 
themselves  the  oppressors.  The  document  of  Manetho  on 
this  subject,  therefore,  can  only  be  made  intelligible  by  inter- 


THE  BONDAGE.  217 

preting  it  to  mean  exactly  the  contrary  of  what  it  says ;  and 
of  course  is  not  entitled  to  the  least  respect  as  historical 
authority.  We  therefore  reject  as  spurious  the  whole  para- 
graph from  Manetho  giving  the  story  of  the  return  of  the 
shepherds  on  the  invitation  of  "  the  lepers." 

As  far  as  our  investigations  have  enabled  us  to  discover, 
the  eighteenth  dynasty  of  Egypt  began  to  reign  about  sixty 
years  after  Joseph's  death,  and  the  first  king  was  Thothmes, 
Tethmosis  or  Amosis,  or  Ames  or  Amos,  for  in  all  these 
various  modes  has  it  been  written.  The  chronological  coinci- 
dence would,  therefore,  suggest  that  he  was  the  king  who 
"  knew  not  Joseph."  By  this  expression  we  understand,  not 
that  he  was  ignorant  of  the  past  history  of  Joseph,  but  that  he 
was  not  so  deeply  impressed  as  the  last  dynasty  had  been 
with  a  sense  of  the  services  Joseph  had  rendered  to  the  state ; 
and  therefore  not  equally  disposed  to  acknowledge  the  claims 
of  the  Israelites  upon  the  Egyptian  government.  But  why  was 
this?  Because  he  was  from  the  distant  province  of  Thebes, 
knew  nothing  personally  of  the  Hebrews,  and,  with  the  usual 
haughty  arrogance  of  Egyptian  monarchs,  probably  viewed 
them  with  the  contempt  and  suspicion  that  attached  to 
foreigners,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  especially  to  shepherds. 
Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  has  made  a  suggestion  on  this  subject, 
well  worthy  of  consideration.  He  thinks  that  the  Jews,  who 
had  come  in  under  the  pressure  of  a  famine,  had  asked  and 
obtained  a  grant  from  the  Egyptian  authorities,  on  condition 
of  the  performance  of  certain  services  by  them  and  their 
descendants.  This  is  rather  corroborated  by  the  fact  that 
some  of  them  were  agriculturists,  while  others  were  shep- 
herds ;  for  we  read  that,  beside  their  labor  "  in  mortar  and 
brick,"  they  were  also  employed  "  in  all  manner  of  service  in 


218  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

the  field,"  Ex.  i.  14  : — and  in  Deuteronomy,  the  phrase  occurs, 
"  Egypt where  thou  sowedst  thy  seed  and  wateredst  it." 

While  the  Memphitic  dynasty  lasted,  Wilkinson  thinks 
this  grant  was  respected,  and  nothing  more  was  required  of 
the  Hebrews  than  a  compliance  with  the  terms  on  which  it 
was  made.  But  when  the  Theban  family  came  to  the  throne, 
the  grant  was  rescinded,  and  the  services  notwithstanding 
required ;  and  thus  commenced  the  bondage,  when  despotism 
and  prejudice  soon  found  a  pretext  for  imposing  additional 
burdens.  It  was  pretended  that  the  Hebrews,  who  certainly 
had  rapidly  increased  in  numbers,  had  thereby  become  dan- 
gerous to  Egypt ;  particularly  as  they  lived  on  the  side  next 
to  the  Nomade  tribes,  with  whom  they  might  make  alliances  ; 
and,  more  especially,  as  they  were  not  very  far  distant  from 
the  descendants  of  the  old  invaders,  the  shepherds,  who  had 
withdrawn  to  Palestine  only,  and  there  constituted  the  valiant 
and  powerful  race  of  the  Philistines. 

Whether  this  pretext  were  well  or  ill  founded,  it  furnished 
the  Egyptian  monarch  with  sufficient  grounds  for  treating  the 
Israelites  like  captives  taken  in  war,  and  compelling  them 
gratuitously  to  erect  "  treasure  cities  "  for  him,  which  they  did. 
All  we  can  say  of  this  conjecture,  in  the  absence  of  positive 
proof,  is  that  it  does  not  violate  probability,  and  is  perfectly 
consistent  with  the  details  of  the  Bible  story. 

The  next  point  that  we  have  to  consider,  consists  of  the 
details  of  Jewish  oppression,  at  the  hands  of  Egypt : — "  They 
did  set  over  them  taskmasters,  to  afflict  them  with  their 
burdens.  And  they  built  for  Pharaoh  treasure  cities,  Pithom 
and  Raamses." — "  And  the  Egyptians  made  the  children  of 
Israel  to  serve,  with  rigor :  and  they  made  their  lives  bitter 
with  hard  bondage  in  mortar  and  in  brick,  and  in  all  manner 


THE  BONDAGE. 


219 


of  service  in  the  field :  all  their  service,  wherein  they  made 
them  serve  was  with  rigor." 

i.  They  set  over  them  taskmasters.  This  is  perfectly 
Egyptian ;  and  exists  at  this  day,  with  the  single  difference 
that  the  Egyptians  occupy  the  place  of  the  oppressed,  instead 
of  the  oppressors.  The  bitter  cup  is  returned  to  their  own 
lips.  A  modern  writer  states  that,  "  when  the  labor  of  the 
people  is  required  for  any  public  work,  the  officers  of  Mehemet 
Ali  collect  the  whole  neighborhood — men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren ;  and  dividing  them  into  so  many  companies  or  droves, 
appoint  taskmasters  over  them.  These  are  armed  with 
whips  which  they  use  pretty  freely,  as  they  are  responsible 
for  the  completion  of  the  work."  The  monuments  show  that 
this  was  precisely  the  custom  of  ancient  Egypt.  Below  are 
representations  in  illustration.  In  the  first,  the  culprit  is  sub- 
jected to  the  bastinado ;  a  punishment  by  no  means  uncommon 
now  in  Egypt,  which  is  governed  very  much  by  the  cudgel 
or  stick. 


lii'i!,;uilL'ir 


The  following  affords  another  example,  where  the  task- 
masters all  appear  with  sticks ;  and  while  one  offender  has 


220 


EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 


hands  already  laid  upon  him,  another  is  in  the  posture  of 
deprecatory  supplication. 


Egyptian  taskmasters. — From  the  monuments. 


They  were  employed  in  building  cities.  Josephus  tells  us, 
that  his  nation  was  also  engaged  in  building  pyramids,  and 
making  canals  and  embankments.  It  seems  questionable, 
however,  whether  the  Israelites  took  any  part  in  the  work  of 
building  the  pyramids  of  Memphis,  or  the  Arsinoite  nome. 
The  better  opinion  is,  that  they  did  not.  But  captives  were, 
in  general,  the  builders  of  public  works.  Thus  Diodorus 
tells  us,  that  Sesostris  placed  on  all  his  buildings  erected 
by  captives,  an  inscription,  stating  that  no  native  citizen  had 
been  engaged  in  the  servile  work. 

n.  Pithom  and  Raamses  were  the  cities  they  built.  They 
were  fortified  towns,  in  which  provisions  were  stored  up. 
The  first  named,  is  the  Patumos  of  Herodotus  ;  which,  as  we 
learn  from  him,  was  on  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the  Nile,  not  far 
from  the  entrance  of  the  canal  which,  in  his  day,  connected 
the  Nile  with  the  Red  Sea.  The  initial  P,  is  but  the  Egyp- 
tian article ;  and  in  the  rest  of  the  name,  we  recognize  the 
Thum,  which  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  places  at  twelve 


THE  BONDAGE.  221 

Roman  miles  from  Heroopolis.  Guided  by  these  indications, 
the  French  savans  place  Pithom  on  the  site  of  the  present 
village  of  Abbaseh.  This  is  in  ancient  Goshen.  The  same 
scholars  have  also  satisfactorily  shown,  that  Raamses  was  the 
same  place  which  the  Greeks  called  Heroopolis ;  and  was 
between  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the  Nile  and  the  Bitter  Lakes,  at 
a  place  now  called  Abu  Keisheid.  This  also  is  within  ancient 
Goshen.  With  the  opinions  of  the  French  scholars,  we  may 
add  that  Hengstenberg,  who  has  bestowed  great  labor  and 
learning  on  this  subject,  entirely  concurs. 

in.  They  were  subjected  to  hard  bondage  in  mortar  and 
brick.  Bricks  in  Egypt  are  of  great  antiquity,  and,  as  we 
learn  from  the  Scripture  story,  were  usually  made  with  straw, 
intermixed  with  clay.  Thus  writes  Wilkinson  : — "  The  use 
of  crude  brick  baked  in  the  sun,  was  universal  in  Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt,  both  for  public  and  private  buildings  ;  and  the 
brick  field  gave  abundant  occupation  to  numerous  laborers 
throughout  the  country.  These  simple  materials  were  found 
to  be  peculiarly  suited  to  the  climate  ;  and  the  ease,  rapidity, 
and  cheapness  with  which  they  were  made  offered  additional 

recommendations So  great  was  the  demand  that  the 

Egyptian  government,  observing  the  profit  which  would  accrue 
to  the  revenue  from  a  monopoly  of  them,  undertook  to  supply 
the  public  at  a  moderate  price,  thus  preventing  all  unauthor- 
ized persons  from  engaging  in  their  manufacture.  And  in 
order  more  effectually  to  obtain  their  end,  the  seal  of  the  king, 
or  of  some  privileged  person,  was  stamped  upon  the  bricks  at 
the  time  they  were  made."  Bricks  have  been  found  thus 
marked,  both  in  public  and  private  buildings.  The  monopoly 
must  have  been  profitable  to  the  kings,  inasmuch  as  they 
availed  themselves  of  the  cheap,  because  unpaid,  labor  of  the 


222  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

captives.  It  would  seem,  however,  from  the  monuments,  that 
some  native  laborers  were  employed,  though  the  majority- 
there  represented  are  foreigners. 

As  to  the  use  of  straw,  it  is  proved,  by  an  examination 
of  the  bricks  brought  by  Rosellini  from  Thebes,  bearing  the 
stamp  of  Thothmes  IV.,  the  fifth  king  of  the  eighteenth  dy- 
nasty. "The  bricks"  (says  Rosellini)  "which  are  now  found 
in  Egypt  belonging  to  the  same  period,  always  have  straw 
mingled  with  them,  although  in  some  of  those  that  are  most 
carefully  made,  it  is  found  in  very  small  quantities."  Another 
writer,  quoted  by  Hengstenberg,  Prokesch,  says,  "  The  bricks 
(of  the  first  pyramid  at  Dashoor)  are  of  fine  clay  from  the 
Nile,  mingled  with  chopped  straw.  This  intermixture  gives 
the  bricks  an  astonishing  durability." 

In  connection  with  this  subject  of  brick-making  in  Egypt, 
a  most  interesting  painting  was  found  by  Rosellini,  at  Thebes, 
in  the  tomb  of  Roschere.  He  did  not  hesitate  to  call  his  com- 
ments on  it,  "  explanation  of  a  picture  representing  the  He- 
brews as  they  were  engaged  in  making  brick."  We  present  a 
copy  of  it,  from  Wilkinson's  drawing,  and  cannot  but  consider 
it  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  pictorial  representations 
yet  found  in  Egypt,  even  should  it  be  supposed  not  to  repre- 
sent the  Hebrews.  Wilkinson's  copy  is  too  small  to  bring  out 
all  the  details  as  Rosellini's  representation  does :  we  will  first 
give  Rosellini's  description. 

"  Of  the  laborers,"  (says  he,)  "  some  are  employed  in  trans- 
porting the  clay  in  vessels  ;  some  in  intermingling  it  with  the 
straw ;  others  are  taking  the  bricks  out  of  the  form  and  placing 
them  in  rows ;  still  others,  with  a  piece  of  wood  upon  their 
backs  and  ropes  on  each  side,  carry  away  the  bricks  already 
burned  or  dried.    Their  dissimilarity  to  the  Egyptians  appears 


oiim/ 


The  render  will  be  pleased  to  suppose  the  right  end  of  the  lower  cut  to  be 
joined  to  the  left  end  of  the  upper,  and  he  will  then  have  a  view  of  the  picture 
as  it  is  in  the  original. 


224  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

at  the  first  view ;  the  complexion,  physiognomy,  and  beard, 
permit  us  not  to  be  mistaken  in  supposing  them  to  be  He- 
brews. They  wear  at  their  hips  the  apron  which  is  common 
among  the  Egyptians ;  and  there  is  also  represented,  as  in  use 

among  them,  a  kind  of  short  trousers  or  drawers Among 

the  Hebrews,  four  Egyptians,  very  distinguishable  by  their 
mien,  figure,  and  color,  (which  is  of  the  usual  reddish  brown, 
while  the  others  are  of  what  we  call  '  flesh  color,')  are  seen. 
Two  of  them,  one  sitting,  the  other  standing,  carry  sticks  in 
their  hands,  ready  to  fall  upon  two  other  Egyptians,  who  are 
here  represented  like  the  Hebrews,  one  of  them  carrying  upon 
his  shoulders  a  vessel  of  clay,  and  the  other  returning  from 
the  transportation  of  brick,  carrying  his  empty  vessel  to  get  a 
new  load." 

The  diminished  size  of  our  representation  is  necessarily 
such,  that  we  must  request  the  reader  to  turn  to  our  cut,  while 
we  attempt  to  supply,  by  explanation,  its  deficiencies  on  a 
comparison  with  the  much  larger  picture  of  Rosellini. 

The  three  figures  on  the  right  of  the  upper  part  of  the  cut 
are  all  represented  by  Rosellini  with  such  wigs  as  are  usually 
painted  on  Egyptians.  One  of  these  bears  a  stick ;  and  the 
other  two  are  Egyptian  taskmasters,  who,  by  their  failure  to 
exact  the  required  amount  of  work  from  the  Israelites,  are 
compelled  to  perform  servile  work  themselves,  as  a  punish- 
ment. One  of  them  bears  a  load,  and  the  other  (the  right- 
hand  figure,  with  the  yoke)  proves  that  they  had  not  come 
forth  for  labor  of  this  kind ;  for  it  will  be  observed  that  he  has 
not  yet  girt  his  loins,  like  all  the  other  laborers  seen  in  the 
picture,  and  according  to  invariable  Eastern  usage,  but  wears 
his  dress  loose,  like  the  overseer  with  his  stick  raised,  and  the 
taskmaster  who  is  sitting  (No.  6). 


THE  BONDAGE.  226 

The  hieroglyphical  inscription  at  the  top  of  the  cut  reads, 
"  Captives  brought  by  his  majesty,  to  build  the  temple  of  the 
great  god."  On  the  left  of  the  lower  cut,  is  the  tank  or  cistern 
from  which  water  was  obtained,  and  in  which  one  laborer  is 
seen  standing,  while  another  is  dipping  his  vessel  into  the 
cistern.  Most  of  the  laboring  figures  are  represented  by 
Rosellini  with  hair  and  beards  ;  their  complexion  also,  in  the 
original,  is  painted  of  a  different  color  from  that  of  the  Egyp- 
tians :  there  is  no  doubt  they  are  meant  for  foreigners  of 
some  kind  ;  and,  to  our  eyes,  the  physiognomy  is  unmistaka- 
bly Jewish.  They  are  marked  also  with  splashes  of  clay,  and 
their  whole  appearance  indicates  the  most  servile  degradation. 
Three  of  the  laboring  figures,  however,  seem  to  be  Egyptians, 
and  of  equal  degradation  with  their  companions. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  this  remarkable  picture  should 
have  attracted  much  attention  among  the  students  of  Egyp. 
tian  antiquity.  Heeren  remarks  of  it,  "  If  this  painting  repre- 
sents the  servitude  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  these  labors,  it  is 
equally  important  for  exegesis  and  chronology.  For  exegesis, 
because  it  would  be  a  strong  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the  Mosaic 
writings,  and  especially  of  the  book  of  Exodus,  which,  in  the 
first  and  fifth  chapters,  gives  a  description  which  applies  most  ac- 
curately to  this  painting,  even  in  unimportant  particulars.  For 
chronology,  since  it  belongs  to  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  under  the 
dominion  of  Thothmes  Mosris,  about  1740  b.  c,  and  therefore 
would  give  a  fixed  point  both  for  profane  and  sacred  history." 

Indeed,  the  striking  character  of  this  painting  seems  to 

have  caused  an  intimation,  if  not  a  positive  expression,  of  doubt 

as  to  its  genuineness.     The  question  has  been  asked,  "  Is  it  not 

probably  a  supposititious  work,  prepared  after  the  Pentateuch 

was  written  ?'     Rosellini  first  gave  it  to  the  world  ;  afterward. 
15 


226  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  made  a  new  examination  of  it  on  the 
spot,  and  his  acknowledged  sound  judgment  deliberately  de- 
cided in  its  favor,  as  being  a  genuine  production  of  the  eight- 
eenth dynasty.  His  judgment,  it  will  be  seen,  is  entitled  to 
the  more  weight  when  we  add,  that  he  is  not  prepared  to  say 
the  picture  refers  to  the  work  of  the  Israelites  in  their  bondage  ; 
but  rather  questions  it ;  remarking,  however,  "  it  is  curious  to 
discover  other  foreign  captives,  occupied  in  the  same  manner, 
overlooked  by  similar  '  taskmasters,'  and  performing  the  very 
same  labors  as  the  Israelites  described  in  the  Bible ;  and  no 
one  can  look  at  the  paintings  of  Thebes  representing  brick- 
makers,  without  a  feeling  of  the  highest  interest."  We  will 
now  state  the  grounds  on  which  the  application  of  the  picture, 
to  the  story  of  the  Hebrews,  has  been  questioned. 

First.  How  came  this  picture  at  Thebes,  in  the  tomb  of 
Roschere  ?  Rosellini  answers  thus :  Roschere  was  a  high 
court  officer  of  the  king ;  that  the  tomb  was  his,  is  plainly 
proved,  indeed  it  is  not  questioned,  and  it  was  built  in  the  time 
of  Thothmes  IV.,  the  fifth  king  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 
Roschere  was  the  overseer  of  the  public  buildings  ;  and  had, 
consequently,  charge  of  all  the  works  undertaken  by  the  king. 
In  the  tomb  are  found  other  objects  of  a  like  nature,  two  colos- 
sal statues,  a  sphinx,  and  the  laborers  who  hewed  the  stone- 
works, which  he,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  had  caused  to  be 
made  in  his  lifetime.  All  this,  it  is  believed,  is  conceded  as 
being  true. 

Secondly.  How  came  the  Israelites  to  be  represented 
as  laboring  at  Thebes  ?  This,  as  it  seems  to  us,  is  Sir 
Gardner  Wilkinson's  greatest  objection.  The  scene  of  the 
labor  represented  is  in  his  view  undeniably  at  Thebes,  for  the 
lower  hieroglyphics  state  that  the  bricks  are  made  for  a  "  build- 


THE  BONDAGE.  227 

ing  at  Thebes."  It  is  with  great  diffidence  we  venture  to 
entertain  an  opinion  on  this  subject,  different  from  Wilkinson's. 
Yet  here,  we  must  confess  that  the  objection  does  not  seem 
conclusive.  It  is  true  that  the  Israelites,  during  their  bondage, 
occupied  their  ancient  home  (so  far  as  the  men  were  allowed 
to  enjoy  a  home)  in  Goshen,  which  was  far  distant  from 
Thebes :  but  we  know  of  nothing  either  in  Scripture  or  else- 
where, which  confined  their  labors  to  Goshen.  On  the  con- 
trary, when  they  were  ordered  in  this  very  business  of  brick- 
making,  to  find  straw  for  themselves,  we  are  constrained  to 
believe  that  they  were  at  work  for  the  royal  monopolist  and 
brick  merchant,  in  almost  all  parts  of  Egypt ;  for  in  Exodus 
v.  12,  we  read,  "  so  the  people  were  scattered  abroad  through- 
out all  the  land  of  Egypt  to  gather  stubble  instead  of  straw." 
This  certainly  does  not  convey  the  idea  that  they  were  making 
bricks  in  Goshen  only. 

Beside,  according  to  Rosellini,  the  inscription  does  not  so 
plainly  declare  that  these  bricks  in  the  picture  were  made 
for  a  "  building  at  Thebes  ;"  and  if  they  were,  as  Egypt 
formed  then  but  one  kingdom,  and  as  there  is  reason 
from  other  testimony  to  believe  that  the  usage  in  working  the 
Israelites  was  to  send  them  out  in  gangs,  or  classes,  under 
overseers  for  a  considerable  time,  making  these  classes  suc- 
cessively relieve  each  other,  we  cannot  see  any  objection  to 
the  opinion  that  they  may  have  been  sent  as  far  as  Thebes  for 
the  sake  of  their  work  :  certain  it  is  that  no  considerations  of 
humanity,  or  of  the  convenience  of  these  poor  bondmen,  would 
have  prevented  it.  Beside,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  they  were 
sent  out  of  Goshen  for  agricultural  purposes,  inasmuch  as  we 
read  they  were  employed  "in  all  manner  of  service  in  the 
field  ;"    and   their  numbers  had  so  much   increased   at   this 


228  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

time,  that  the  tillage  of  Goshen  alone  could  not  possibly  have 
required  the  labor  of  all :  why  then  might  they  not  have 
been  sent  out  of  Goshen  to  make  bricks  also?  The  other 
inscription,  too,  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  expressly  describes 
them  as  "  captives  brought  by  his  majesty  to  build,"  &c.  It 
certainly  was  for  the  interest  of  their  Egyptian  oppressors, 
who  alleged  their  number  as  a  reasonable  ground  of  appre- 
hension to  scatter  them  in  small  bodies  over  all  Egypt,  as 
much  as  possible.  At  this  day,  that  degraded  caste,  the 
Fellahs,  are  gathered  in  troops  from  the  remotest  provinces  of 
Egypt  to  execute  any  great  public  work. 

Thirdly.  It  is  objected,  that  all  these  laborers  have  not 
beards.  Certainly,  however,  beard  is  to  be  found  on  some,  and 
we  think  its  absence  on  others  is  easily  explained,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  probably  a  degraded  class  of  Egyp- 
tians. How  they  came  to  be  mingled  with  Israelites  in 
servile  work  we  think  we  can  show  beyond  question,  when 
we  come  to  speak  of  that  "  great  rabble,"  who  accompanied 
the  Hebrews  at  the  exode. 

Another  objection  remains  to  be  considered.  There  are 
those  who,  while  they  readily  admit  that  the  picture  repre- 
sents Jews  servilely  employed  in  making  brick,  yet  doubt 
whether  the  painting  was  designed  to  delineate  the  par- 
ticular act  of  servitude  specified  in  the  Scriptural  history  of 
the  bondage.  The  ground  of  their  doubt  is  this ;  that  from 
the  general  absence  on  the  monuments  of  every  thing  that 
could  reflect  on  the  Egyptian  national  character,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  mortified  pride,  after  the  triumphant 
exode  of  the  Israelites,  caused  the  Egyptians  studiously 
to  obliterate  every  sculpture  which  could  recall  the  fact  that 
such  a  race  as  Israel  ever  was  oppressed  in  Egypt,  and  sig- 


THE  BONDAGE.  229 

nally  redeemed  from  that  oppression  by  their  God.  Con- 
sequently it  is  thought  this  history  of  a  part  of  that  oppression 
would  not  have  been  permitted  to  remain. 

To  this  objection  there  are,  as  it  seems  to  us,  two  satisfac- 
tory answers.  Conceding  that  monuments  which  could  recall 
the  mortifying  history  of  the  virtual  triumph  of  Israel  in  the 
exode  were  destroyed,  the  destruction  was  of  public  monu- 
ments. No  sculptured  story  or  painting  of  the  acts  of  any 
Egyptian  king  would  be  left  to  perpetuate  the  record  of 
shame.  The  mutilations  that  have  been  found  thus  far  are 
on  public  national  memorials.  The  cartouch  of  a  monarch, 
for  instance,  is  obliterated,  when  the  remembrance  of  him 
would  reflect  no  credit  on  Egypt :  but  private  tombs  were  not 
mutilated  in  this  mode.  Roschere's  tomb  was  no  public 
memorial ;  its  representation  of  Jews  making  brick  was  doubt- 
less founded  on  fact,  but  was  introduced  incidentally  merely 
to  testify  to  his  own  importance  as  overseer  of  public  works. 
Strictly  private,  it  was  not  disturbed. 

But  another  and  conclusive  answer  to  our  minds  is  this. 
It  is  conceded  that  these  are  Jews  working,  that  they  are 
greatly  degraded,  and  are  making  brick.  Now  the  represen- 
tation must  have  been  founded  on  facts.  We  ask,  then,  at 
what  period  except  during  the  oppressive  tyranny  of  the 
bondage,  does  our  historical  knowledge  of  the  connection 
between  the  Jews  and  Egyptians  afford  the  slightest  intima- 
tion or  probability  that  they  were  likely  to  be  thus  degraded 
and  employed  ?  Certainly  not  before  the  king  "  who  knew 
not  Joseph ;"  for  the  Jews  then  were  in  favor  with  the 
ruling  powers  :— certainly  not  afterward,  until  the  lapse  of  a 
period  long  posterior  to  this,  when  Shishak  conquered  Reho- 
boam.     There  was  then,  if  these  be  representations  of  Jews  at 


230  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

all,  no  period  but  that  of  the  bondage  to  which  the  picture 
could  apply.  On  the  whole,  the  result  of  the  best  examina- 
tion we  have  been  able  to  bestow  on  the  subject,  tends  to  pro- 
duce a  belief  that  Rosellini  is  correct  in  his  application  of  the 
picture  to  the  Jews  in  bondage  ;  and  if  we  err,  we  are  happy  in 
being  able  to  say  that  we  do  it  in  company  with  such  men  as 
Rosellini,  Hengstenberg,  Osborn,  and  Kitto. 

Moses  teas  committed  to  an  "  ark  of  bulrushes,  daubed  with 
slime  and  pitch? 
Nothing  is  easier  than  to  object,  on  the  part  of  those  who 
conclude  that  the  habits  and  customs  of  all  times,  and  of  all 
people,  must  of  necessity  have  been  precisely  similar  to  those 
with  which  only  they  are  familiar.  They  have  never  seen  a 
boat  of  bulrushes,  and  therefore  there  never  was  one.  Just 
such  a  boat  as  is  here  described  is  to  this  day  built  and  used 
in  Abyssinia ;  and  the  locality  is  worthy  of  note,  because 
Isaiah  (xviii.  2)  refers  to  Ethiopia  as  sending  "  vessels  of  bul- 
rushes upon  the  waters."  Such  objectors  would  probably 
deny  the  former  existence  of  the  wicker  coracles  of  the  ancient 
Britons. 

The  original  word,  translated  bulrushes,  is  gome.  It  is 
found  in  three  other  places  in  Scripture.  From  Job  viii.  11. 
and  Isaiah  xxxv.  7,  compared  with  Isaiah  xviii.  2,  we  gather 
that  it  was  a  plant  growing  in  moist  situations,  and  used  for 
the  construction  of  boats.  From  Theophrastus,  we  learn  that 
the  plant  used  for  this  purpose  on  the  Nile  was  the  Cyperns 
Papyrus,  though  Wilkinson  thinks  it  was  the  Cyperns 
Dives ;  the  learned  have,  therefore,  long  concurred  in  the 
opinion  that  the  cyperus,  in  some  form,  was  the  plant  gome. 
It  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  rush,  as  our  translation  would 


THE  BONDAGE.  231 

imply,  but  one  of  the  family  of  sedges.  The  root  is  about  the 
thickness  of  a  full-sized  man's  wrist,  and  more  than  fifteen 
feet  long,  and  so  hard  that  all  kinds  of  utensils  were  made  of 
it.  The  stem  is  about  six  feet  long,  surmounted  by  a  cluster 
of  little  spikes,  which  are  weak,  and  hang  down  like  a  plume, 
and  are  applied  to  no  useful  purpose.  The  stem,  however, 
was  eaten  raw,  roasted  or  boiled,  and  furnished  materials  for 
boats,  sails,  mats,  clothes,  beds,  and  books.  Paper  was  made 
of  it  before  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  as  some  of  the 
papyri  found  at  Thebes  and  elsewhere  show. 

Herodotus  and  Pliny,  both  inform  us  that  boats  were  made 
of  it.  In  Egypt,  and  in  Egypt  only,  was  this  plant  applied 
to  the  many  useful  purposes  we  have  enumerated ;  and  as  far 
as  we  can  learn,  it  was  not  used  for  vessels  out  of  Egypt, 
except,  and  that  possibly  at  a  later  day,  in  Ethiopia.  With 
Ethiopia,  the  history  of  the  Israelites  had  no  connection.  It 
is,  therefore,  evidence  of  the  author's  acquaintance  with  Egypt 
at  a  very  early  period,  that  he  constructs  this  boat  for  Moses, 
of  the  papyrus. 

The  slime  here  mentioned,  may  have  been  asphaltum  or 
mineral  pitch ;  for  from  various  sources,  we  know  the  ancient 
Egyptians  had  bitumen ;  but  as  this  slime  was  mingled  with 
pitch  (vegetable  rosins),  we  suppose  it  may  have  been  simply 
the  mud  or  slime  of  the  Nile  which,  to  this  day,  possesses 
peculiarly  adhesive  properties.  A  modern  writer  tells  us,  that 
this  slime  is  wonderfully  tenacious ;  and  when  dry,  adheres 
like  pitch  :  hence,  with  a  little  straw  or  stubble,  it  needed 
but  to  be  sun-dried  to  make  bricks,  which  even  yet  remain. 
The  natives  now,  when  they  are  to  descend  the  stream  with 
a  heavy  cargo,  build  a  wall  of  this  mud  on  the  gunwales  or 
sides  of  their  boats ;  and  permitting  it  to  dry,  are  not  afraid 


232  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

to  load  the  vessel  until  the  water  rises  above  the  wood-work 
of  the  boat.  The  slime  will  bear  the  washing  of  the  stream, 
when  the  boat  is  floating  in  mid-channel  down  the  river.  If, 
however,  contrary  winds  cause  rough  water,  accidents  some- 
times happen  from  the  washing  away  of  the  slime,  and  the 
boat  founders.  This  slime,  mixed  with  pitch  and  suffered  to 
become  hard,  would  therefore  have  made  a  perfectly  water- 
tight lining  for  the  bulrush-boat  of  Moses. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


THE    DELIVERANCE. 


And  now  in  the  good  providence  of  God,  the  time  had  come 
for  the  deliverance  of  this  down-trodden  and  abused  race 
of  Hebrews.  Moses  appears  as  the  agent  of  Heaven  to 
commence  the  work.  In  obedience  to  God's  command,  he 
demands  of  Pharaoh  :  "  Let  my  people  go,  that  they  may 
hold  a  feast  unto  me  in  the  wilderness."  "Let  us  go,  we 
pray  thee,  three  days'  journey  into  the  desert,  and  sacrifice 
unto  the  Lord  our  God."  To  this  Pharaoh  refuses  his  assent, 
and  imposes  on  them  additional  burdens ;  taking  from  them 
the  straw  with  which  they  had  heretofore  been  furnished  in 
the  manufacture  of  brick,  and  compelling  them  to  gather 
stubble  for  the  purpose. 

The  agricultural  scenes  from  the  monuments  show,  that 
the  usage  among  the  Egyptians  was  to  cut  the  grain  some 
distance  above  the  ground ;  and  to  this  day,  old  sun-dried 
bricks,  compacted  with  stubble  instead  of  straw,  are  found 
not  only  in  Egypt,  but  in  Babylonia. 

Upon  the  second  application  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  Pharaoh 
demands  of  them  some  miracle  in  proof  of  their  commission. 
Such  proof  was  not  wanting :  and  here,  before  entering  upon 
the  consideration  of  it,  a  few  preliminary  remarks  may  be  of 
service.     It  has  been  observed  of  all  the  unusual  incidents 


234  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

preceding  the  exodus,  that  they  find  a  foundation  in  the 
natural  phenomena  of  Egypt,  and  stand  in  close  connection 
with  ordinary  occurrences ;  and  this  has  been  urged  as  an 
argument  against  the  truth  of  the  story.  To  give  force  to 
this  objection,  it  is  necessary  to  establish  the  fact,  that  the 
performance  of  no  act,  which,  under  any  circumstances  might 
have  occurred  of  itself,  in  the  natural  course  of  events,  can 
possibly  be  miraculous.  But  this  proposition  is  very  far  from 
being  true.  Take,  for  instance,  hail  and  locusts ;  it  will  not 
follow  that,  because  both  these  exist  in  nature,  they  therefore 
never  can  appear  under  circumstances  which  will  prove  them 
to  be  miraculous.  Grant  them  to  be  common  manifestations 
in  nature,  still,  when  they,  with  many  other  events  that  might 
happen  in  nature  occur  in  rapid  succession  and  with  great 
intensity,  out  of  their  usual  order  of  occurrence ;  when  they 
do  so  in  a  particularly  specified  region  of  country,  and  at  a 
particular  time,  on  the  bidding  of  some  individual ;  when  at 
the  same  bidding  they  cease,  and  in  some  instances  cease  at 
a  precise  time  previously  designated  by  the  person  who  is 
affected  by  them,  and  earnestly  requests  their  withdrawal ;  it 
is  idle  under  such  circumstances  to  view  them  as  mere 
natural  phenomena,  presenting  themselves  in  their  ordinary 
occurrence.  There  is  something  preternatural  here  ;  and  the 
distinction  must  be  taken  between  the  occurrence  itself,  and 
the  very  unnatural  and  extraordinary  combination  of  cir- 
cumstances under  which  it  occurs.  Hail  may  be  very  natural, 
and  yet  the  attendant  circumstances  of  its  appearance  may 
prove  its  presence  at  a  particular  time  and  place,  its  duration 
and  cessation,  all  to  be  supernatural.  There  is,  therefore,  no 
difficulty  in  understanding  how  a  natural  phenomenon  may  be 
converted  into  miraculous  proof. 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  235 

Further,  in  reference  particularly  to  the  plagues  sent  on 
Egypt,  which  merit  our  consideration,  we  should  remark  the 
fitness  of  the  character  of  the  miracles  performed  to  the  end 
proposed.  A  succession  of  strange  and  unprecedented  terrors, 
brought  suddenly  and  in  rapid  succession  on  Egypt,  would 
not  have  served  as  well  as  the  plagues  did  to  accomplish  the 
great  end  in  view ;  which  was,  as  we  are  told,  to  show  that 
Jehovah  was  "the  Lord  in  the  midst  of  the  earth"  or  land. 
These  terrors  would  have  only  proved  that,  for  the  moment, 
Jehovah  possessed  a  terrific  power :  but  idolatry  was  much 
more  likely  to  find  a  lasting  reproof  and  condemnation,  when 
many  events  with  which  the  Egyptians  were  familiar  (for 
some  of  them  were  of  annual  recurrence)  were  seen  succeed- 
ing each  other,  out  of  place ;  showing  that  the  Jehovah  of 
Israel  was  indeed  " God  in  the  midst  of  the  land"  ordering 
and  altering,  as  he  pleased,  events  with  which  they  were 
well  enough  acquainted  in  their  ordinary  mode  of  occurrence. 
There  was,  therefore,  here  a  special  reason  for  a  class  of 
miracles,  uniting  the  supernatural  with  the  natural.  And  to 
this  it  may  be  added,  that  in  the  Scriptures  generally,  while 
there  are  miracles  entirely  separated  from  all  union  with  natu- 
ral events,  (such  are  most,  if  not  all,  of  those  by  the  Saviour,) 
yet  there  is  a  large  class  in  which  the  supernatural  is  blended 
with  the  natural.  Such  blending  does  not  destroy  the  mira- 
cle, or  impugn  its  testimony  to  truth. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  Scripture  story.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  certain  signs,  not  hurtful  in  their  effects, 
precede  the  plagues,  properly  so  called.     The  first  of  these  is, 

The  change  of  Moses1  rod  to  a  serpent. 
Before  entering  on  a  consideration  of  the  fact  here  men- 


236  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

tioned,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  we  find  the  rod  to  be  the 
inseparable  companion  of  Moses.  This  was  not  accidental, 
tor  it  was  an  Egyptian  custom.  On  the  monuments,  the 
Egyptian  nobles  are  almost  always  seen  with  the  rod  when 
they  are  without  the  house.  It  is  a  staff  from  three  to  six  feet 
long.  Some  of  them  have  been  found  among  the  ruins,  and 
are  preserved  in  modern  museums.  One  of  them,  thus  pre- 
served, is  of  cherry  wood.  Generally,  it  would  seem,  the 
acacia  was  preferred.  The  priests  also,  and  other  persons  of 
rank,  are  often  represented  as  walking  with  sticks. 

One  of  the  most  curious  subjects  of  inquiry  connected  with 
natural  science,  is  the  power  possessed  by  man  over  the  ser- 
pent race,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  especially  in 
Egypt.  Indeed,  the  accounts  are  such  as  to  startle  credulity ; 
and  yet,  so  strong  is  the  testimony  on  which  they  rest,  that 
incredulity  becomes  unreasonable,  and  betrays  the  vulgarity 
of  a  mind  that  fancies  independence  in  the  rejection  of  every 
thing  that  is  very  strange,  (no  matter  what  the  testimony,) 
unless  its  existence  has  been  verified  by  personal  experience 
or  observation. 

Some  of  the  testimony  we  have  on  this  subject  does  not 
come  from  a  class  of  men,  likely  to  betray  any  undue  anxiety 
to  sustain  the  truth  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  men  of  science 
who  went  from  France,  and  furnished  the  "  Description  de 
VEgypte"  all  agree  in  their  accounts.  Some,  who  candidly 
acknowledge  that  they  entered  on  their  examination  of  the 
subject  with  utter  unbelief,  were  forced  to  acknowledge  that 
there  was  in  it  something  more  than  their  philosophy  could 
fathom.  "We  confess,"  (thus  write  some,)  "that  we,  far 
removed  from  all  easy  credulity,  have  ourselves  been  wit- 
nesses of  some  things  so  wonderful,  that  we  cannot  consider 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  237 

the  art  of  the  serpent  tamers  as  entirely  chimerical.  We 
believed,  at  first,  that  they  removed  the  teeth  of  serpents  and 
the  stings  of  scorpions  ;  but  we  have  had  opportunity  to  con- 
vince ourselves  of  the  contrary."  "  I  am  convinced,"  (says 
Q,uatremere,)  "  that  there  was  a  certain  number  of  men,  found 
among  the  Psylli  of  antiquity,  who,  by  certain  secret  prepara- 
tions, put  themselves  in  a  condition  not  to  fear  the  bite  of 
serpents,  and  to  handle  the  most  poisonous  of  them,  uninjured." 
"In  Egypt  and  the  neighboring  countries,"  (says  the  same 
author,)  "there  are  men  and  women  who  truly  deserve  the 
name  of  Psylli,  and  who,  uninjured,  handle  the  cerastes  and 
other  serpents,  whose  poison  produces  immediate  death." 
Hasselquist  says  that  they  do  not  extract  their  teeth. 

The  Psylli  are  formed  into  an  association,  and  the  art  is 
transmitted  from  father  to  son.  In  Egypt,  serpents  not  unfre- 
quently  conceal  themselves  in  houses,  and  thus  become  very 
dangerous.  A  part  of  the  business  of  the  Psylli  is  to  dislodge 
the  unwelcome  intruder.  The  French  commander-in-chief, 
on  one  occasion,  resolved  to  test  the  powers  of  the  Psylli. 
Traces  led  to  the  suspicion  that  a  serpent  had  found  its  way 
into  the  palace  he  occupied.  The  Psylli  were  summoned. 
They  examined  closely  all  moist  places,  and  there  imitated 
the  hissing,  first  of  the  male,  then  of  the  female  serpent.  After 
a  little  more  than  two  hours,  they  lured  him  out. 

In  their  religious  festivals  they  present  probably  the  most 
frightful  exhibition :  they  then  appear  entirely  naked,  with 
the  neck,  arms,  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  actually  coiled 
around  by  serpents,  which  they  permit  to  bite  and  tear  their 
chests  and  stomachs,  while  they  themselves,  in  a  sort  of  wild 
frenzy,  having  their  features  contorted  to  an  expression  of 
insanity,  with  foam  falling  from  the  mouth,  bite  the  serpents 


238  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

in  return.  In  fact,  some  modern  travellers  state  that  they 
have  seen  them  actually  eat  their  heads. 

Not  the  least  singular  part  of  their  strange  calling  is  their 
sleight  of  hand.  They  will  change  the  Haje,  the  species  of 
serpent  which  they  use  for  this  trick,  into  a  seeming  rod,  and 
compel  it  to  feign  the  rigidity  of  death.  To  perform  this,  they 
spit  in  its  throat,  compel  it  to  shut  its  mouth,  and  lay  it  down 
upon  the  ground.  Then,  they  lay  their  hand  on  its  head,  and 
immediately  the  serpent,  stiff  and  motionless,  falls  into  a  kind 
of  torpor.  When  they  wish,  they  rouse  it  by  seizing  it  by  the 
tail  and  roughly  rubbing  it  between  their  hands.  To  this  Du 
Bois  Ayme,  one  of  the  French  school,  bears  witness. 

Of  this  same  species,  which  is  often  to  be  seen  sculptured 
on  the  monuments,  and  which  is  the  undoubted  cneph  or  aga- 
thodoemon  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Colonel  Smith  informs 
us  that  it  inflates  the  skin  of  the  neck  into  an  intumefaction 
of  that  part ;  and  the  Psylli  or  serpent  charmers,  by  a  particu- 
lar pressure  on  the  neck,  can  render  the  inflation  of  the  animal 
so  intense  that  the  serpent  becomes  rigid,  and  can  be  held  out 
horizontally  as  if  it  were  a  staff.  We  may,  therefore,  he 
thinks,  "  infer  that  the  magicians  of  Pharaoh  used  a  real  ser- 
pent for  a  rod — namely  this  species,  now  called  Naja  Haje,  for 
their  imposture ;  since  they,  no  doubt,  did  what  the  present 
serpent  charmers  perform  with  the  same  species  by  means  of  a 
temporary  asphyxiation  or  suspension  of  vitality ;  and  pro- 
ducing restoration  to  active  life,  by  liberating  or  throwing 
down."  This  statement  affords  us,  at  least,  evidence  of  re- 
markable facts  connected  with  the  serpent  tamers  of  both 
ancient  and  modern  Egypt,  sufficient  to  show  that  the  story  we 
have  in  the  Pentateuch  is  in  harmony  with  an  existing  state 
of  things  in  the  time  of  Moses.     Jannes  and  Jambres,  who,  as 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  239 

we  elsewhere  learn  from  Jewish  traditions,  are  supposed  to  be 
those  who,  on  this  occasion,  withstood  Moses,  may  have  been 
but  expert  jugglers :  but  it  is  of  very  little  importance  to 
inquire  by  which  of  their  many  tricks  they  accomplished  their 
seeming  miracle.  The  real  miracle  consists  in  this,  that 
Moses'  rod  was  truly  changed  into  a  serpent,  and  then  devoured 
theirs.  The  object  was  to  show  the  power  of  the  true  God, 
and  whatever  seeming  imitations  the  magicians  might  furnish, 
it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  three  first  signs  Moses  gave  of  his 
mission,  that  power  was  proved.  Thus  here  Moses'  rod  swal- 
lows up  theirs ;  they  also  seemingly  changed,  on  a  limited 
scale,  water  into  blood,  but  they  cannot  do,  as  Moses  does, 
convert  it  again  into  water  ;  so,  too,  they  brought  up  frogs  on 
the  land,  but  they  could  not,  like  Moses,  free  the  land  from 
them.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch 
does  not  pretend  to  speak  with  certainty  on  the  origin  or 
nature  of  the  acts  performed  by  the  magicians.  He  commits 
himself  to  no  opinion  by  calling  them  either  jugglery,  or  mira- 
cles performed  by  God's  permission  under  satanic  influences  ; 
but  contents  himself  with  a  simple  statement  of  the  facts, 
without  entering  into  an  explanation  of  them.  The  only 
issue,  therefore,  that  is  here  made,  is  as  to  the  fact  itself. 
Those  who  deny  it  are  bound  to  produce  some  proof,  not  that 
it  was  unusual  merely,  but  that  it  was  actually  impossible. 
We  have  shown  that  in  Egypt,  something,  very  similar  to  it  at 
least,  might  have  seemingly  been  done  by  these  magicians ; 
and  that,  in  the  absence  of  all  proof  to  the  contrary,  is  quite 
sufficient  to  show  that  Egypt,  in  this  particular,  has  revealed 
nothing  to  contradict  the  Bible.  For  ourselves,  we  are  free  to 
admit  that,  while  we  look  on  all  the  plagues  of  Egypt  as  mira- 
culous displays  of  Divine  power,  we  hope  to  show  that  so  far 


240  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

as  natural  phenomena  are  involved  in  them,  nothing  that  we 
know  of  that  ancient  land,  will  be  found,  but  what  harmonizes 
with  the  Scripture  narration. 

The  first  Plague — the  change  of  Water  into  Blood. 

The  change  here  indicated,  it  is  supposed,  and  that  not 
without  sufficient  reason,  (gathered  from  other  and  analogous 
passages,)  does  not  imply  any  thing  more  than  a  change 
to  a  blood-red  color.  It  is  a  very  common  form  of  Hebrew 
speech  to  express  similarity  by  identity. 

Those  who  are  anxious  to  find  an  explanation  of  the 
plagues  of  Egypt,  in  mere  natural  and  ordinary  events  of 
that  country,  are  peculiarly  unfortunate  with  this  one. 

1.  It  is  said,  and  truly,  that  the  waters  of  the  Nile  during 
one  period  of  their  increase  become  of  a  brownish  red  color, 
owing  probably  to  the  earth  washed  down  from  Abyssinia, 
and  that  the  discoloration  here  spoken  of  arises  from  that  cause. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  answer  to  this  is ;  that,  on 
this  supposition,  it  is  not  easy  to  understand  why  the  Egyp- 
tians should  have  been  either  surprised  or  intimidated  by  so 
familiar  an  occurrence. 

But  further :  a  part  of  the  phenomenon,  according  to  the 
Bible,  is  thus  recorded :  "  The  river  shall  stink,  and  the 
Egyptians  shall  loathe  to  drink  of  the  water  of  the  river."  It 
could  not  then  have  been  the  ordinary  discoloration  of  a 
common  overflow ;  for,  in  such  case,  the  water  does  not  cease 
to  be  drinkable.  "  During  the  continuance  of  my  journey," 
(says  Sonnini,)  "  I,  with  my  companions,  had  no  other  drink 
than  the  unmingled  water  of  the  Nile.  We  drank  it  without 
any  one  of  us  experiencing  inconvenience,  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  even  when  the  inundation  so  fills  it  with  slime  that 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  241 

it  is  thick  and  reddish,  and  appears  truly  loathsome."  The 
fact  would  appear,  from  the  accounts  of  travellers,  to  be,  that, 
so  far  from  its  red  color  making  it  unwholesome,  it  is  rather  a 
sign  that  it  is  fit  for  use :  for  it  is  preceded  by  a  greenish  dis- 
coloration, during  which  it  is  so  corrupt,  tasteless,  and  un- 
wholesome, that  the  natives  confine  themselves  to  the  water 
which  they  have  preserved  in  cisterns. 

But,  thirdly,  this  could  not  have  been  the  discoloration  of 
the  usual  overflow,  from  a  consideration  of  the  time  of  the 
occurrence.  It  is  true,  as  Dr.  Hales  has  remarked,  that  the 
season  of  the  year  is  not  distinctly  specified  ;  and  yet  there 
are  abundant  data  from  which  it  may  be  ascertained  with 
certainty.  We  read  that  at  the  time  of  these  plagues,  and 
particularly  of  that  of  hail,  which  followed  the  one  we  are 
considering,  "  the  flax  and  the  barley  was  smitten,  for  the 
barley  was  in  the  ear,  and  the  flax  was  boiled  :  but  the  wheat 
and  the  rice  were  not  smitten  ;  for  they  were  not  grown  up." 
Now  these  statements  enable  us  to  fix  the  season  of  the  year. 
Flax  in  Egypt  ripens  in  March,  when  the  plants  are  gathered  ; 
it  must  therefore  have  been  "boiled,"  or  risen  in  stalk  in 
February.  Barley  is  gathered  in  Egypt,  according  to  all  the 
accounts,  one  month  before  the  wheat.  The  wheat  harvest  in 
Upper  Egypt  is  in  April,  and  in  Lower  Egypt  in  May : 
barley,  therefore,  would  have  been  in  ear  in  February.  The 
season,  therefore,  must  have  been  about  February,  when  the 
plague  of  hail  happened  ;  certainly  not  later  than  that  month. 
The  change  from  water  to  blood  was  before  the  hail — probably 
in  January ;  but  the  discoloration  of  the  river,  from  the 
natural  overflow,  does  not  take  place  until  months  after 
February,  and   the   commencement  of  the  rise  is   punctual 

almost  to  a  day.     The  only  ground,  therefore,  on  which  this 
10 


242  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

can  be  considered  the  annual,  natural  discoloration  of  the 
river  is,  that  the  river  must  have  risen  months  before  its  time ; 
and  we  do  not  see  that  this  anticipatory  rise  at  the  command 
of  Moses,  which  is  the  solution  of  Michaelis,  would  have  been 
any  less  miraculous  than  the  discoloration  of  the  water. 

But  there  is  another  fact  stated  that  is  conclusive.  The 
fish  died.  Of  such  an  effect  as  this,  produced  by  the  annual 
rise  of  the  river,  there  is  not  an  instance  on  record.  Another 
feature,  which  stamps  the  event  as  no  mere  natural  result  of 
well-known  ordinary  causes,  is  this,  that  the  waters  are 
changed  suddenly,  not  gradually,  as  in  a  rise  ;  and,  further, 
that  the  change  was  according  to  the  prediction  of  Moses,  and 
at  the  precise  moment  when  he  lifted  his  rod.  There  are  also 
some  matters  of  seemingly  minor  importance  connected  with 
this  plague,  which  are  yet  testimony  much  too  strong  to  be 
overlooked.  Every  man,  familiar  with  the  business  of  ex- 
amining evidence,  knows  full  well  that  sometimes  the  great 
work  of  eviscerating  truth  is  accomplished  by  closely  marking 
the  incidental  statements  of  a  witness,  having  seemingly  little 
or  no  connection  with  the  principal  subject.  Such  remarks 
often  betray  a  prepared  story,  of  which  all  the  little  minor 
details  that  ought  to  belong  to  it,  if  true,  have  not  been  duly 
studied  beforehand :  and  so  also  they  often  show  an  un- 
studied consistency  in  every  minute  particular,  because  the 
witness  is  simply  telling  the  truth,  with  no  further  or  other 
preparation  than  that  if  drawing  on  his  memory  for  facts. 
Now,  here  are  some  particulars  in  the  writer  of  our  history  of 
precisely  this  description.  They  are  brought  forward  with  no 
parade,  accompanied  with  no  labored  explanation  to  show 
their  consistency  with  the  chief  features  of  the  story,  but 
mentioned  casually,  as  if  by  a  man  who  took  it  for  granted 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  243 

that  all  who  heard  him  knew  as  well  as  he  did  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  country  of  which  he  was  speaking.  Thus 
he  tells  us  that  God  commanded  Moses  to  stretch  out  his  rod 
"  that  there  may  be  blood  throughout  all  the  land  of  Egypt, 
both  in  vessels  of  wood  and  in  vessels  of  stone."  Now  in 
these  latter  words  there  is  evident  particularity :  they  are  not 
necessary  to  impress  us  with  either  the  extent  or  reality  of 
the  miracle  ;  and  except  from  a  man  perfectly  familiar  with 
the  customs  of  Egypt,  we  should  probably  not  have  had 
them  without  explanation.  The  waters  of  the  Nile  are  fre- 
quently purified  for  drinking  in  vessels  both  of  wood  and 
stone.  As  on  the  Mississippi  river,  at  this  day,  they  are 
placed  in  vessels,  and  crushed  almonds  are  dropped  in,  to 
cause  a  speedy  precipitation  of  the  sediment.  They  are  also 
filtered  through  porous  stone.  The  point  here  to  which  we 
would  attach  importance  is  not,  however,  so  much  the  coinci- 
dence of  Egyptian  usages  with  the  language  used,  as  it  is  the 
perfectly  natural  and  unpremeditated  manner  in  which  the 
allusion  is  made.  The  author  supposes  that  a  mere  hint  is 
enough,  without  pausing  to  reflect  whether  all  his  readers  are 
as  familiar  as  he  is  with  the  peculiarities  of  Egypt.  And  by 
the  way,  we  must  not  omit  to  remark,  that  the  change  in  the 
domestic  vessels  of  the  Egyptians  containing  purified  water 
was  certainly  not  produced  by  the  red  earth  of  the  river,  and 
consequently  here,  at  least,  is  a  miracle.  All  the  German 
school  are  careful  to  overlook  this  part  of  the  story. 

Again :  Moses  is  commanded  to  stretch  out  his  hand 
"  upon  the  waters  of  Egypt,  upon  their  streams,  and  upon 
their  rivers,  [as  we  translate  it,  but  as  we  should  read  it,  and 
as  the  Septuagint  does,  canals,]  and  u\xm  their  ponds,  and 
upon  all  their  pools,  [or.  as  in  the  margin,  gatherings  of  their 


244  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

waters.]  Why  this  elaborate  classification  of  the  waters  of 
Egypt  1  Because  of  its  conformity  to  the  truth,  which  feared 
not  to  classify,  because  it  feared  no  detection  of  falsehood. 
The  streams  (says  Faber)  are  the  arms  of  the  Nile,  the  canals 
the  artificial  ditches  for  irrigation,  the  ponds  are  the  stagnant 
bodies  of  water  which  the  Nile  makes,  and  which  are  called 
in  Egypt  birkeh,  and  the  pools  or  gatherings  of  their  waters 
are  the  waters  left  behind  by  the  Nile  on  its  subsidence,  the 
lakes  and  puddles,  from  which  the  peasants  at  a  distance 
from  the  river  get  their  water. 

Further  :  the  instructions  given  to  Moses  were,  "  Get  thee 
unto  Pharaoh  in  the  morning;  lo,  he  goeth  out  unto  the 
water ;  and  thou  shalt  stand  by  the  river's  brink  against  he 
come,"  <fec.  And  again  :  "  Rise  up  early  in  the  morning,  and 
stand  before  Pharaoh  ;  lo,  he  cometh  forth  to  the  water,"  (fee. 
Why  this  positive  certainty  that  early  in  the  morning  the 
king  would  be  by  the  river  brink  ?  Because  the  Nile  was 
deified.  The  monuments  furnish  ample  proof  of  this  fact, 
and  Pharaoh's  early  resort  to  it  was  but  an  habitual  act  of 
devotion.  On  the  whole,  then,  it  would  seem  to  be  plain 
from  the  story  of  this  plague,  not  only  that  the  author  had  a 
perfectly  accurate  knowledge  of  the  usages  of  Egypt,  but  that 
he  also  relates  them  with  such  unpremeditated  simplicity  as 
creates  a  strong  proof  of  their  truthfulness. 

The  second  Plague — the  Frogs. 
Here,  as  before,  the  object  of  superstition  became  the  in- 
strument of  punishment.  The  frog  was  one  of  the  deities  of 
Egypt,  and,  as  might  be  expected,  abundant  enough  in  such  a 
country.  In  connection,  however,  with  our  general  subject,  there 
is  nothing  calling  for  special  remark,  beyond  the  fact  that  this 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  245 

must  have  been  a  terrible  annoyance  to  a  people  so  scrupu- 
lously clean  as  were  the  Egyptians.  It  is  also  to  be  observed 
that  Pharaoh,  alarmed  by  this  plague,  entreated  its  removal, 
and,  by  direction  of  Moses,  named  the  time  at  which  it  should 
disappear.  At  that  time  it  did  disappear,  thus  proving  the 
miraculous  nature  of  the  transaction. 

The  third  Plague — Lice  or  Gnats. 
There  has  been  much  learned  discussion  as  to  the  insect 
that  constituted  this  plague.  The  Hebrew  word  is  kinnim. 
The  Septuagint  translates  it  by  the  Greek  word  owicpes,  which 
means  properly  the  gnat,  which  we  call  the  mosquito,  an  in- 
sect most  abundant  and  troublesome  in  Egypt.  The  learned 
seem  generally  to  concur  in  the  opinion  that  this  is  the  insect 
meant  by  the  word  kinnim,  because  the  translators  of  the 
Septuagint  who  lived  in  Egypt,  and  therefore  knew  what 
insect  was  meant,  have  thus  translated  it ;  as  have  also  Origen 
and  Jerome,  both  of  whom  had  better  opportunities  of  knowing 
what  was  meant  than  we  have.  It  is,  however,  not  to  be 
denied  that  there  are  some  who  adhere  to  the  version  in  our 
translation.  It  is,  however,  of  but  little  moment  which  of  the 
two  named  insects  was  meant ;  both  are  painfully  abundant  in 
Egypt,  and  on  this  occasion  were  brought  in  swarms  most  ex- 
traordinary, even  in  that  country  ;  perhaps,  too,  they  were  pro- 
duced thus  abundantly,  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  they  do 
not  usually  abound.  There  is,  however,  in  this  plague,  little, 
if  there  be  any  thing  connected  with  the  subject  we  are  con- 
sidering. 

The  fourth  Plague — the  Flies. 
I  fere  again,  there  seems  to  be  some  doubt  as  to  the  precise 
nature  of  the  insect  meant.     The   Hebrew   (arob)  is  rendered 


246  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

in  the  Vulgate,  omne  genus  muscarum,  all  sorts  of  flies,  and 
hence  our  version  reads  it,  "  swarms  of  Jlies  ;"  but  the  word 
for  Jlies  is  not  in  the  original.  The  word  arob  can  scarcely 
have  any  other  meaning  than  the  mingling,  or  mixture. 
Some  have  hence  supposed  that  the  plague  consisted  of  an 
immense  number  of  beasts  of  prey  of  various  kinds ;  others 
suppose  it  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  divers  species  of  annoy- 
ing insects  ;  while  others  again  think  that  it  was  a  fly,  princi- 
pally because  the  Septuagint  translates  arob  by  a  Greek  word 
meaning  dog-fly.  To  this  latter  reading  it  has  been  objected 
that  it  is  said  "  the  land  was  corrupted  by  reason  of  the  swarm," 
and  that  this  could  hardly  be  applied  to  any  fly  properly  so 
called :  beside,  in  Psalm  lxxxviii.  45,  the  arob  is  described  as 
devouring  the  Egyptians,  an  act  that  seems  inapplicable  to  a 
fly.  A  modern  opinion  that  seems  to  have  gained  many  sup- 
porters is,  that  the  Egyptian  beetle  is  here  meant  by  arob.  If 
this  be  so,  then  here  again,  as  in  the  case  of  the  frogs,  the 
Egyptians  were  chastised  through  one  of  their  own  idols.  It 
was  one  of  the  sacred  animals  of  Egypt. 

But  the  circumstance  most  worthy  of  note  in  the  history 
of  this  plague  is  this :  when  it  appeared,  "  Pharaoh  called  for 
Moses  and  for  Aaron,  and  said,  Go  ye,  sacrifice  to  your  God  in 
the  land.  And  Moses  said,  It  is  not  meet  so  to  do ;  for  we 
shall  sacrifice  the  abomination  of  the  Egyptians  to  the  Lord  our 
God :  lo,  shall  we  sacrifice  the  abomination  of  the  Egyptians 
before  their  eyes,  and  will  they  not  stone  us  ?  We  will  go 
three  days'  journey  into  the  wilderness,  and  sacrifice  to  the 
Lord  our  God." 

Here  is  an  undoubted  reference  to  Egyptian  opinions  and 
customs,  with  which  the  story  agrees.  The  meaning  almost 
universally  given  to  it  is,  that  the  Israelites  could  not  offer 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  247 

their  sacrifices  in  Egypt,  because  their  own  lives  would  be 
taken,  if  they  killed,  even  in  sacrifice,  animals  deemed  sacred 
in  Egypt.  The  sacred  animals  of  Egypt  were  of  different 
grades.  Some  were  absolutely  worshipped  as  gods;  others 
were  looked  on  as  living  symbols  of  the  gods.  Some  were 
worshipped  generally  throughout  Egypt ;  others  in  particular 
districts  only.  Nor  did  the  several  districts  always  make  the 
same  animal  the  idol ;  as  we  have  said  before,  the  god  of  one 
was  the  object  of  execration  in  another.  Those  that  were 
principally  esteemed  and  honored  with  a  more  intense  devo- 
tion, either  generally  or  particularly,  were  the  solitary  bull 
Apis,  (not  bulls  generally,)  the  cow,  the  sheep,  goat,  cat.  dog, 
ichneumon  and  crocodile  :  among  birds,  the  hawk  and  the 
ibis.  But  whatever  might  be  the  animal  god  of  the  highest 
order,  it  was  guarded  and  protected  with  the  deepest  reverence. 
Lands  were  assigned  for  its  special  support.  To  kill  it  was 
unpardonable  sacrilege,  and  even  if  it  were  done  by  accident, 
it  was  punished  with  death.  If  a  fire  happened,  there  was  the 
greatest  anxiety  lest  any  of  the  godly  race  of  cats  should 
perish  in  the  flames.  They  embalmed  the  dead  bodies  of  their 
beastly  idols  ;  made  great  lamentation  over  them,  and  buried 
them  with  pomp.  Diodorus  relates  an  anecdote,  which  may 
serve  to  explain  the  apprehension  of  Moses.  He  states  it  as 
having  occurred  while  he  was  in  Egypt. 

Some  Romans  were  in  that  country,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  treaty  with  the  king.  The  Roman  power  was  then 
much  feared ;  and  the  people,  anxious  for  the  treaty,  bestowed 
on  the  strangers  uncommon  attention  and  civility.  One  of 
them  unintentionally  killed  a  cat.  Instantly,  notwithstand- 
ing the  strong  grounds  for  forbearance,  the  people  rose  in 
an  ungovernable  mob,  hastened  to  the  lodging  of  the  unfor- 


243  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

tunate  man ;  and  not  even  the  personal  interference  of  the 
king  himself,  nor  the  dread  of  the  Roman  power,  could  save 
his  life. 

The  animals  which  the  Israelites  would  offer  in  sacrifice, 
were  the  oxen,  the  cow,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat.  All  were 
sacred  in  Egypt ;  and  though  the  oxen  might  sometimes  be 
sacrificed,  yet  it  was  not  every  ox  that  might  be  made  the 
victim.  It  was  necessary  that  the  beast,  before  he  was  slain, 
should  be  closely  examined  by  a  priest,  to  see  that  he  was 
free  from  certain  marks ;  the  presence  of  which  would  have 
made  him  sacred,  and  unfit  for  a  victim.  Herodotus  tells  us, 
that  only  a  red  ox  could  be  offered  ;  one  single  black  hair 
would  cause  it  to  be  set  aside.  Cows  were  all  consecrated  to 
Athor,  and  could  not  on  any  account  be  sacrificed.  The 
sheep  was  sacred  in  the  locality  of  the  transaction  we  are 
considering,  and  so  was  the  goat.  What  Moses  meant,  there- 
fore, probably  was,  that  the  Egyptians  would  have  risen  in  a 
body,  and  in  their  religious  frenzy  would  have  massacred  the 
Israelites,  had  they  attempted  to  offer  their  sacrifices  in 
Egypt. 

Hengstenberg  very  ingeniously  reasons  to  prove,  that  the 
offence  of  the  Israelites  in  sacrificing  would  have  consisted  in 
their  entire  disregard  of  what,  among  the  Egyptians,  was  a 
point  of  great  religious  importance,  viz.,  the  cleanness  of  the 
animal  offered.  Herodotus  says  :  "  They  are  not  all  i wed  to 
sacrifice  any  animals,  except  those  that  are  clean  among 
them  ;"  and  hence  Moses  says :  "  Lo,  shall  we  sacrifice  the 
abomination  of  the  Egyptians  before  their  eyes,  and  will  they 
not  stone  us  ?"  From  this  he  infers,  that  the  animals  alluded 
to  by  Moses  in  the  word  "  abomination,"  could  not  be  conse- 
crated among  the  Egyptians ;  for  the  word  would  then  have 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  249 

been  inapplicable :  but  that  what  is  meant  by  "  abomination," 
is  unclean  animals,  inasmuch  as  the  Israelites  would  not  look 
to  see  if  a  black  hair  could  be  found  on  a  red  ox,  before  they 
would  sacrifice  it.  On  either  view,  the  danger  to  Moses  and 
the  Israelites  would  be  the  same. 

Fifth  Plague — the  Destruction  of  the  Animals. 

The  destruction,  it  was  declared  should  be  on  the  horses, 
the  asses,  the  camels,  the  oxen,  and  the  sheep.  It  is  perhaps 
here  worthy  of  note  that  horses,  and  that  without  any  accom- 
panying remark,  are  assigned  the  first  place.  It  furnishes  an 
item  to  be  added  to  the  general  and  incidental  evidences  of 
probability.  The  destruction  of  the  horse,  from  its  value  and 
extensive  use  in  Egypt,  would  be  likely  to  be  deemed  the 
crowning  calamity  in  any  injury  to  the  domestic  animals. 
We  know  not  enough  of  the  diseases  of  animals  in  Egypt,  to 
say  whether  at  any  time  they  are  visited  by  a  general  desola- 
tion. The  French  "  Description  "  informs  us,  that  a  murrain 
sometimes  is  very  general  and  fatal  among  the  homed  cattle  ; 
compelling  the  inhabitants  to  supply  their  losses  from  Syria, 
and  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 

We  must  not  omit  here  to  notice  the  positive  testimony  of 
our  author,  to  the  existence  of  the  camel  in  Egypt.  We  have 
touched  on  this  point  in  our  remarks  upon  the  gifts  made  by 
Pharaoh  to  Abraham.  It  was  supposed  by  the  French 
literati,  that  the  figure  of  the  camel  was  nowhere  to  be  found 
on  the  monuments.  Even  had  this  been  true,  it  would  not 
have  established  the  falsehood  of  our  history ;  for  we  have  no 
right  to  assume,  that  the  sculptures  and  paintings  embrace  or 
were  meant  to  embrace,  the  whole  circle  of  Egyptian  zoology. 
But,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  it  is  not  true.     The  head 


250  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

and  long  necks  of  these  animals  are  repeated  several  times, 
two  by  two,  upon  the  obelisks  at  Luxor,  when  they  were  dis- 
covered by  Minutoli.  Regnier  suggests,  that  even  if  they 
were  wanting,  it  might  reasonably  be  explained  on  the  ground 
that,  however  useful  the  animal,  it  was  associated  so  closely 
with  the  idea  of  the  detested  nomade  shepherds,  that  it  would 
not  be  permitted  to  appear  in  Egypt's  sacred  places.  The 
animal  certainly  was  in  common  use  among  the  nomade  tribes 
on  the  borders  of  Egypt,  and  was  indispensable  in  the  neigh- 
boring deserts,  from  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any 
evidence ;  and  as  a  communication  for  trade,  or  other  pur- 
poses, was  kept  up  between  Egypt  and  her  wandering  neigh- 
bors, from  our  earliest  knowledge  of  her  history ;  it  is  scarce 
possible  that  the  camel  should  not,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
have  been  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

The  sixth  Plague — the  Boils. 

This  visited  both  man  and  beast  "  throughout  all  the  land 
of  Egypt."  It  touched  even  the  scrupulously  clean  magicians 
or  priests,  and  they  seem  to  have  retired  from  further  rivalry. 
Differences  of  opinion  exist  among  the  learned  as  to  what  is 
meant  by  boils.  It  is  of  the  less  importance  that  we  should 
state  them,  because  there  is  nothing  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  this  visitation,  that  falls  within  our  purpose  of  illus- 
trating Scripture  truth  by  Egyptian  testimony. 

The  seventh  Plague — the  Thunder,  and  Hail,  and  Fire. 

By  fire  is  here  meant  lightning ;  and  such  a  tempest  as  is 
here  described  would  have  been  terrific  any  where,  even  in 
the  tropics ;  but  in  Egypt,  such  a  visitation,  as  her  meteoro- 
logy shows,  would  have  been  more  alarming  than  in  any  other 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  251 

country ;  more  particularly,  when  the  adjacent  province  of 
Goshen  was  seen  to  be  untouched.  It  is  not  wonderful,  there- 
fore, that  this  calamity  made  the  deepest  impression  upon  the 
stubborn  nature  of  Pharaoh. 

In  the  account  of  this  plague,  there  are  some  noteworthy 
references  to  facts  such  as  are  found  in  Egypt.  Thus,  Moses 
warns  Pharaoh  :  "  Send  therefore,  now,  and  gather  thy  cattle 
and  all  that  thou  hast  in  the  field ;  for  upon  every  man  and 
beast  which  shall  be  found  in  the  field,  and  shall  not  be 
brought  home,  the  hail  shall  come  down  upon  them,  and  they 
shall  die."  The  cattle,  then,  were  in  the  field  at  that  time,  not 
in  the  stall.  With  this  other  accounts  agree.  According  to 
the  "  Description,"  the  cattle  get  green  food  (in  the  fields)  four 
months  in  the  year ;  the  rest  of  the  time  they  are  stall-fed. 
Niebuhr  tells  us  what  months  these  four  are  :  "  In  the  months 
January,  February,  March,  and  April,  the  cattle  graze,  whereas 
during  the  remaining  months  they  must  be  supplied  with 
dry  fodder."  The  transaction  we  are  considering  occurred  in 
March. 

We  have  (in  fixing  the  time  for  the  plagues)  already 
adverted  to  another  fact  recorded  in  the  history  of  this  visita- 
tion. "  The  flax  and  the  barley  was  smitten ;  for  the  barley 
was  in  the  ear,  and  the  flax  was  boiled.  But  the  wheat  and 
the  rye  were  not  smitten,  for  they  were  not  grown  up."  This 
exactly  agrees  with  the  state  of  the  crops  in  Egypt  at  this 
day,  at  the  time  of  the  year  here  indicated.  Dr.  Richardson, 
in  his  "  Travels,"  speaking  of  March,  (the  early  part  of  it,) 
says  :  "The  barley  and  flax  are  now  far  advanced  ;  the  former 
is  in  the  ear  and  the  latter  is  boiled,  and  it  seems  to  be  about 
this  season  of  the  year  that  God  brought  the  plague  of  thun- 
der and  hail  upon  the  Egyptians,  to  punish  the  guilty  Pha- 


252  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

raoh,  who  had  hardened  his  presumptuous  heart  against  the 
miracles  of  Omnipotence."  We  learn,  too,  from  Sonnini,  that 
barley  comes  to  maturity  in  Egypt  about  a  month  before 
wheat.  Wheat  and  rye  mature  there  about  the  same  time. 
Flax  and  barley  are  generally  ripe  in  March,  wheat  and  rye 
in  April.  It  was  the  same  in  former  times :  Theophrastus 
and  Pliny  both  tell  us  that  there  was  a  month's  difference  in 
the  harvesting  of  barley  and  wheat. 

The  eighth  Plague — the  Locusts. 

The  succession  of  calamities  with  which  Egypt  had  been 
visited  seem  at  length  to  have  roused  the  people  to  expostu- 
lation. "  Knowest  thou  not  yet  that  Egypt  is  ruined  ?"  was 
the  emphatic  question  with  which  they  accompanied  their 
advice  that  Israel  might  be  permitted  to  depart.  It  is  not  to 
be  doubted,  that  the  great  contest  so  obviously  going  on 
between  the  power  of  Jehovah,  and  the  proud  obstinacy  of 
Pharaoh,  had  by  this  time  effectually  roused  the  close  at- 
tention of  all,  both  of  Egypt  and  Israel.  All  stood  waiting 
with  interest  the  result.  The  labors  of  the  oppressed  descend- 
ants of  Abraham  had  probably  ceased ;  and  congregated  in 
Goshen,  (for  there  only  could  they  be  exempt  from  God's  fear- 
ful manifestations  of  his  might,)  they  began  to  believe  that 
God  was  working  deliverance  for  them  by  the  agency  of  his 
prophet ;  and  looking  at  the  gathering  dismay  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, they  gladly  hoped  that  the  time  of  their  deliverance 
had  indeed  come. 

Pharaoh,  moved  doubtless  by  the  unequivocal  manifesta- 
tions of  feeling  on  the  part  of  his  own  people,  summons  Moses 
and  Aaron  to  his  presence,  to  yield  a  reluctant  assent  to  the 
exode  of  the  men  only  of  Israel.     The  spirited  answer  of 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  253 

Moses,  that  none  should  be  left  behind,  rouses  the  royal  indig- 
nation, and  he  commands  the  leaders  of  Israel  to  be  thrust 
from  his  presence. 

Then  came  the  locusts.  This  insect  is  common  in  Arabia, 
but  comparatively  rare  in  Egypt ;  as  the  Red  Sea  forms  a 
species  of  barrier  against  them,  they  not  being  able  to  sustain 
a  long  flight  across  large  bodies  of  water.  The  time  of  their 
appearance,  too,  was  much  earlier  than  is  usual  in  Egypt; 
and  so  far  as  the  agency  of  natural  causes  was  concerned,  "  a 
strong  east  wind"  assists  their  transit  across  the  sea.  This 
alone  was  remarkable,  as  the  prevalent  winds  which  blow  in 
Egypt  are  six  months  from  the  north,  and  six  months  from 
the  south. 

We  have  not  been  without  opportunities,  even  in  some 
parts  of  our  own  country,  of  seeing  the  large  number  of  these 
insects,  and  of  observing  the  extent  of  their  ravages  in  the  re- 
moval of  verdure  from  the  trees  ;  but  in  Egypt  their  path  was 
literally  marked  by  ruin.  "  The  locusts  went  up  over  all  the 
land  of  Egypt,  and  rested  in  all  the  coasts  of  Egypt.  Very 
grievous  were  they :  before  them  were  no  such  locusts  as 
they,  neither  after  them  shall  there  be  such.  For  they  cov- 
ered the  face  of  the  whole  earth,  so  that  the  land  was  dark- 
ened ;  and  they  ate  up  every  green  herb  upon  the  earth,  and 
every  tree,  the  fruit  of  which  the  hail  had  left ;  not  any  green 
thing  remained  on  the  trees,  or  on  the  herbs  of  the  field, 
through  all  the  land  of  Egypt." 

That,  at  the  proper  season,  the  swarms  of  locusts  in  Egypt 
may  be  very  destructive,  though  not  to  the  extent  here  de- 
scribed, is  proved  by  Denon.  After  describing  what  is  called 
a  chamsin  in  Egypt,  a  wind  attended  with  a  species  of  un- 
natural darkness  from  dust  and  other  causes,  he  thus  proceeds : 


254  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

"  Two  days  after  this  calamity,  we  were  informed  that  the 
plain  was  covered  with  birds,  which  flew  in  dense  flocks  from 
east  to  west.  We,  in  fact,  saw  from  a  distance  that  the  fields 
seemed  to  move,  or  at  least  that  a  long  current  flowed  through 
the  plain.  Supposing  that  they  were  strange  birds  which 
had  flown  hither,  in  such  great  numbers,  we  hastened  our 
pace  in  order  to  observe  them.  But,  instead  of  birds,  we 
found  a  cloud  of  locusts  which  made  the  land  bald ;  for 
they  stopped  on  each  stalk  of  grass  to  devour  it,  and 
then  flew  further  for  spoil.  At  a  time  of  the  year  when 
the  corn  is  tender,  they  would  have  been  a  real  plague ;  as 
lean,  as  efficient,  and  as  lively  as  the  Arab  Bedouin,  they  are 
also  a  production  of  the  desert.  After  the  wind  had  changed 
its  course,  so  as  to  blow  directly  against  them,  it  swept  them 
back  into  the  desert." 

It  is  impossible  to  read  this  account,  and  not  be  struck 
with  its  singular  agreement  with  ours  in  certain  particulars. 
In  both  stories,  the  locusts  come  from  the  east  to  the  west ; 
in  both  their  coming  is  connected  with  a  peculiar  wind,  and  in 
both,  they  are  driven  away  by  a  counter  wind.  As  to  this 
last  point,  our  Bible  tells  us,  the  Lord  sent  "  a  mighty  strong 
west  wind,"  by  which  they  were  driven  back.  In  the  original, 
it  is  " a  sea-wind"  meaning  a  wind  blowing  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean, which  in  Syria  would  of  course  be  westerly,  hence  it 
is  translated  west  wind :  in  Egypt,  such  a  wind  would  be 
northwesterly,  and  yet  be  properly  expressed  by  the  original 
term,  a  sea-wind.  Von  Bohlen  objects  to  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch,  as  a  fault  of  ignorance,  and  therefore  an  argu- 
ment against  his  credibility,  that  he  makes  the  locusts  come 
from  the  east,  with  the  wind.  The  reader  has  before  him, 
the  means  of  judging  what  force  there  is  in  the  objection.     It 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  255 

may  well  be  doubted  whether,  in  Egypt,  they  are  ever  seen 
coming  in  swarms  from  any  other  quarter.  Should  it  be  sup- 
posed that  the  locusts  of  Egypt,  mentioned  in  our  narrative, 
were  but  a  natural  phenomenon ;  we  readily  admit  that  an 
appearance  of  locusts  may  be  natural,  and  yet,  as  we  have 
endeavored  to  explain  in  our  opening  remarks  on  the  plagues, 
it  may  be  connected  with  such  attendant  circumstances,  not 
natural  and  ordinary,  as  clearly  prove  miraculous  power. 

The  ninth  Plague — Darkness. 

In  Egypt,  a  cloud  seldom  obscures  the  sun ;  the  sky  is 
beautifully  clear  and  transparent.  A  darkness  of  three  days, 
therefore,  which  was  so  thick  that,  in  the  emphatic  and 
poetical  language  of  Scripture,  it  " might  be  felt"  must  have 
been  to  the  Egyptians  an  appalling  event.  "  No  one  rose 
from  his  place  for  three  days."  Even  Pharaoh  was  moved, 
and  offered  to  let  the  people  go ;  but  wished  to  retain  their 
flocks  and  herds  as  security  for  their  return.  Then  it  was 
that  Moses  gave  his  determined  answer :  "  There  shall  not  a 
hoof  be  left  behind." 

How  far  this  darkness  may  have  been  connected  with 
natural  causes,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  There  is  no  intimation 
given  in  the  narrative  which  authorizes  the  affirmation  of  any 
specific  natural  agency.  Some  have  supposed  that  a  dense 
fog  was  spread  over  the  land.  Admit  it,  a  fog  of  three  days 
would  bo  a  miracle  in  Egypt ;  for  nature  never  spontaneously 
produces  one  there  of  even  one  day's  continuance. 

Others  have  attributed  the  darkness  to  the  chamsin,  of 
which  we  just  now  spoke.  We  are  not  aware  that  there  is 
any  record  of  the  ehamsin's  continuing  to  produce  the  thickest 
darkness  for  three  days  ;  and  the  very  interesting  accounts  of 


256  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

it,  which  we  are  about  to  present  to  the  reader,  scarcely  seem, 
in  our  view,  to  be  descriptive  of  such  a  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere as  is  implied  in  the  Bible  account  of  the  Egyptian 
plague  of  darkness.  There  is  an  obscurity  in  which  our 
history  leaves  this  miracle,  that  is  characteristic  of  the  miracle. 
It  seems  to  us  to  be  purposely  (we  know  not  why,  and  pre- 
sume not  to  conjecture)  more  involved  in  obscurity  than  any 
of  the  other  plagues.  Our  belief,  however,  is  not  at  all 
affected  by  the  determination  of  the  question,  whether  it  is  or 
is  not,  associated  with  natural  causes  ;  for  we  must  beg  leave 
to  repeat,  that  even  natural  causes,  acting  for  a  time  non- 
naturally,  in  extent  or  otherwise,  show  the  hand  of  God,  and 
prove  a  miracle. 

Du  Bois  Ayme  (one  of  the  French  school)  compares  the 
Mosaic  darkness  to  the  chamsin.  He  says,  "  When  the  cham- 
sin  blows,  the  sun  is  pale  yellow  ;  its  light  is  obscured,  and  the 
darkness  is  sometimes  so  great,  that  one  seems  to  be  in  the 
blackest  night,  as  we  experienced  in  the  middle  of  the  day  at 
Cene,  a  city  of  Said."  Sonnini  thus  writes  :  "  The  atmosphere 
was  heated,  and  at  the  same  time  obscured  by  clouds  of  dust ; 
the  thermometer  of  Reaumur  stood  at  27  degrees.  Men  and 
animals  breathed  only  vapor,  and  that  was  heated  and  min- 
gled with  a  fine  and  hot  sand.  Plants  drooped,  and  all  living 
nature  languished.  This  wind  also  continued  to  the  27th  ;  it 
appeared  to  me,  to  have  increased  in  force.  The  air  was  dark 
on  account  of  a  thick  mist  of  fine  dust  as  red  as  flame." 

Much  the  most  particular  and  interesting  account,  however, 
is  Denon's.  "  On  the  18th  of  May,  in  the  evening,  I  felt  as 
if  I  should  perish  from  the  suffocating  heat.  All  motion  of  the 
air  seemed  to  have  ceased.  As  I  went  to  the  Nile  to  bathe  for 
the  relief  of  my  painful  sensations,  I  was  astonished  by  a  new 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  257 

sight.  Such  light  and  such  colors  I  had  never  seen.  The  sun, 
without  being  veiled  with  clouds,  had  been  shorn  of  its  beams. 
It  gave  only  a  white  an'd  shadowless  light,  more  feeble  than 
the  moon.  The  water  reflected  not  its  rays,  and  appeared  dis- 
turbed. Every  thing  assumed  another  appearance ;  the  air 
was  darker,  a  yellow  horizon  caused  the  trees  to  appear  of  a 
pale  blue.  Flocks  of  birds  fluttered  about  before  the  clouds. 
The  frightened  animals  ran  about  in  the  fields,  and  the  inha- 
bitants who  followed  them  with  their  cries,  could  not  collect 
them.  The  wind  which  had  raised  immense  clouds  of  dust,  and 
rolled  them  along  before  itself,  had  not  yet  reached  us.  We 
thought  that  if  we  went  into  the  water,  which  at  this  moment 
was  quiet,  we  should  avoid  this  mass  of  dust,  which  was 
driven  toward  us  from  the  southwest ;  but  we  were  scarcely  in 
the  river,  when  it  began  suddenly  to  swell,  as  if  it  would  over-' 
flow  its  banks.  The  waves  broke  over  us,  and  the  ground 
heaved  under  our  feet.  Our  garments  flew  away  when  seized 
by  the  whirlwind,  which  had  now  reached  us.  We  were  com- 
pelled to  go  to  land.  Wet,  and  beaten  by  the  wind,  we  were 
soon  surrounded  by  a  ridge  of  sand.  A  reddish,  dusky  appear- 
ance filled  the  region ;  with  wounded  eyes,  and  nose  so  filled 
that  we  could  hardly  breathe,  we  strayed  from  one  another, 
lost  our  way,  and  found  our  dwellings  with  great  difficulty, 
feeling  along  by  the  walls.  Then,  we  sensibly  felt  how  terri- 
ble the  condition  must  be,  when  one  is  overtaken  by  such  a 
wind  in  the  desert." 

The  tenth  Plague— Death  of  the  First-born. 

Some  have  supposed  that  this  was  a  pestilence  similar  to 
the  plague  of  Egypt  at  this  day.     There  is  not  the  smallest 
evidence  to  sustain  such  an  opinion,  and  the  plague  never 
17 


258  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

made  Its  appearance  in  Egypt,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to 
discover  its  history,  until  long  after  the  days  of  Moses.  Heng- 
stenberg  ascribes  the  disease,  here  spoken  of,  to  the  prevalence, 
just  before,  of  the  chamsin,  mentioned  under  the  last  head ; 
and  so  far  as  natural  causes  may  have  been  employed  to  an 
unusually  fearful  extent,  there  may  be  plausibility  in  his  con- 
jecture. It  may  be  true,  as  he  states,  that  epidemic  disease  at 
this  day  generally  succeeds  the  prevalence  of  a  chamsin  ;  but 
we  look  on  this  occurrence  as  resulting  from  causes,  far  with- 
out the  circle  of  ordinary  natural  causes.  It  affords,  however, 
but  little  in  illustration  of  our  subject. 

This  plague  produced  the  effect  which  God  had  said  it 
should.  A  voice  of  lamentation  was  heard  through  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  land,  save  in  Goshen.  The  destroying 
angel  had  performed  his  work;  and  with  a  haste  engendered 
by  fear,  Pharaoh  bade  Israel  go.  It  was  night,  but  they  waited 
for  no  dawn  of  day  or  second  bidding.  All  was  ready,  they 
commenced  their  exode,  and  turning  their  backs  on  Egypt, 
they  left  it  as  a  people  for  ever.  God  had  broken  their  chains 
and  they  were  free. 

But  they  went  not  out  alone ;  "  a  mixed  multitude,"  as  the 
Bible  expresses  it,  went  out  with  them,  A  part  of  this  mixed 
multitude  we  have  seen  delineated  on  the,  picture  of  the  brick- 
makers.  They  were  Egyptians  reduced  to  wretchedness  by 
oppression  and  poverty ;  a  species  of  Fellah  of  ancient  Egypt. 
Some  also,  of  the  multitude  were  probably  foreign  slaves,  be- 
longing to  the  chief  persons  among  the  Hebrews.  Some,  pro- 
bably, were  slaves  belonging  to  the  Egyptians,  who  availed 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  escape  from  their  masters. 
It  is  not  recorded  any  where  that  the  Israelites  were  at  all  bene- 
fited by  their  company ;  it  may,  therefore,  be  safely  inferred 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  259 

that  they  were  the  outcasts  of  society,  for  the  most  part  thieves, 
vagabonds,  adventurers  and  bankrupts,  who  could  no  longer 
stay  with  safety  in  Egypt. 

A  few  days  were  sufficient  to  revive  all  the  animosity  of 
Egypt  toward  the  Hebrews ;  and  Pharaoh  resolving  on  pur- 
suit, "  made  ready  his  chariot,  and  took  his  people  with  him  : 
and  he  took  six  hundred  chosen  chariots,  and  all  the  chariots 
of  Egypt,  and  captains  over  every  one  of  them : — and  he  pur- 
sued after  the  children  of  Israel."  This  statement  is  in 
correspondence  with  the  sculptures,  which  show  numerous 
instances  of  the  Egyptian  war  chariots,  and  attest  the  great 
use  made  of  them.  By  "  his  people,"  is  meant  his  army,  i.  e. 
infantry,  as  distinguished  from  his  "  chariots  and  horsemen." 

We  have,  on  a  former  page,  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  Manetho  (the  favorite  authority  of  a  certain  class  of 
writers  on  Egypt)  has  distinctly  admitted  that  there  was  such 
a  person  as  Moses,  though  he  calls  him  a  leper ;  and  we  have 
endeavored  to  show  that,  for  our  purpose,  it  matters  little 
whether  this  admission  come  from  the  real  or  spurious  Mane- 
tho :  we  are  happy  in  being  able  to  add,  that  the  admirers  of 
this  Egyptian  writer  cannot,  without  a  contradiction  of  their 
favorite  witness,  deny  the  facts  of  the  exode  of  the  Israelites 
and  the  pursuit  of  them  by  Pharaoh,  as  here  recorded.  Euse- 
bius  gives  us  the  following  passage  from  the  lost  history  of 
Manetho  :  "  The  Heliopolitans  relate  that  the  king,  with  a  great 
army,  accompanied  by  the  sacred  animals,  pursued  after  the 
Jews,  who  had  carried  off  with  them  the  substance  of  the 
Egyptians."  So  that  here  the  ancient  records  of  Egypt  itself 
(from  which  it  is  claimed  Manetho  drew  his  information)  are 
bearing  testimony  to  the  truth  of  what  is  written  in  the  ancient 
records  of  the  Hebrews. 


260  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

But  some,  by  way  of  objection,  have  asked  how  could 
Pharaoh  so  speedily  assemble  a  great  army  for  pursuit  ?  The 
objection  is  singularly  unfortunate  for  those  who  would  deny 
the  truth  of  the  Bible  story.  The  very  rapidity  with  which 
he  assembled  these  troops  is  remarkably  in  agreement  with 
facts  which  we  will  now  relate.  The  greater  part  of  the 
standing  army  of  Egypt  was  habitually  concentrated  in  this 
very  region  from  which  the  Israelites  took  their  departure,  be- 
cause it  was  the  most  exposed  frontier  of  the  land.  They 
constituted  the  garrison  of  certain  walled  or  fortified  towns  in 
that  region.  Herodotus  has  expressly  named  the  nomes  or 
provinces  in  which  the  military  force  was  quartered.  No  less 
than  sixteen  and  a  half  nomes  were  within  the  Delta.  "  In 
the  Mosaic  times,"  (says  Heeren,)  "  the  warrior  caste  first  ap- 
pears in  Lower  Egypt.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  Pharaoh 
there  mentioned  could  assemble  the  army  with  which  he  pur- 
sued the  fugitive  Israelites,  evinces  clearly  enough  that  the 
Egyptian  warriors  of  that  epoch  must  have  been  quartered  in 
just  the  same  district  in  which  Herodotus  places  them." 

It  comports  not  with  the  leading  purpose  of  our  work  to 
enter  into  the  much  controverted  point  of  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea  by  the  Israelites.  Those  who  have  discussed  it  may 
be  divided  into  the  two  classes  of  those  who  have  been  willing 
to  find  the  place  of  transit  any  where,  provided  the  locality, 
by  means  of  shoals  or  other  causes,  would  deprive  the  occur- 
rence of  its  miraculous  character ;  and  those  who,  believing 
it  to  be  a  miracle,  endeavor,  from  the  Bible  and  other  sources, 
to  fix  its  locality,  without  troubling  themselves  to  inquire  into 
the  existence  of  shoals  or  winds  that  may  account  for  the 
extraordinary  passage.  We  trust,  however,  we  may  be  par- 
doned for  availing  ourselves  of  this  opportunity  of  bringing 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  261 

before  the  reader  a  very  sensible  and  spirited  letter  from  one, 
who  has  at  last  received  tardy  justice  at  the  hands  of  the 
public,  for  a  long-continued  and  undeserved  distrust  of  his 
truth.     We  allude  to  Bruce. 

Michaelis  (who  raised  much  of  the  discussion  on  this  sub- 
ject) sent  to  Niebuhr,  who  was  then  in  Egypt,  certain  queries ; 
one  of  which  proposed  to  him,  to  inquire  "  whether  there  were 
not  some  ridges  of  rock,  where  the  water  was  shallow,  so  that 
an  army  at  particular  times  might  pass  over  ?  And  secondly, 
whether  the  Etesian  winds,  which  blow  strongly  all  the 
summer  from  the  northwest,  could  not  blow  so  violently 
against  the  sea  as  to  keep  it  back  in  a  heap,  so  that  the 
Israelites  might  have  passed  without  a  miracle  ?v  Niebuhr 
answered,  distinctly,  that  there  was  no  such  shoal ;  though  he 
manifested  in  the  rest  of  his  reply  a  strong  disposition  to  get  rid 
of  the  miracle.  A  copy  of  the  questions  was  left  for  Bruce. 
His  answer  does  him  honor. 

"  I  must  confess,  however  learned  the  gentlemen  were 
who  proposed  these  doubts,  I  did  not  think  they  merited  any 
attention  to  solve  them.  This  passage  is  told  us  by  Scripture 
to  be  a  miraculous  one ;  and  if  so,  we  have  nothing  to  do  with 
natural  causes.  If  we  do  not  believe  Moses,  we  need  not 
believe  the  transaction  at  all,  seeing  that  it  is  from  his 
authority  alone  we  derive  it.  If  we  believe  in  God  that  he 
made  the  sea,  we  must  believe  he  could  divide  it  when  he 
sees  proper  reason  ;  and  of  that  he  must  be  the  only  judge. 
It  is  no  greater  miracle  to  divide  the  Red  Sea,  than  to  divide 
the  river  Jordan. 

"  If  the  Etesian  winds,  blowing  from  the  northwest  in 
summer,  could  keep  up  the  sea  as  a  wall  on  the  right,  or  to  the 
south,  of  fifty  feet  high;  still  the  difficulty  would  remain  of 


262  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

building  the  wall  on  the  left  hand,  or  to  the  north.  Besides, 
water  standing  in  that  position  for  a  day,  must  have  lost  the 
nature  of  fluid.  Whence  came  that  cohesion  of  particles 
which  hindered  that  wall  to  escape  at  the  sides  1  This  is  as 
great  a  miracle  as  that  of  Moses.  If  the  Etesian  winds  had 
done  this  once,  they  must  have  repeated  it  many  a  time  before 
and  since  from  the  same  causes.  Yet  Diodorus  Siculus, 
lib.  iii.  p.  122,  says :  The  Troglodytes,  the  indigenous  in- 
habitants of  that  very  spot,  had  a  tradition  from  father  to  son, 
from  their  very  earliest  ages,  that  once  this  division  of  the  sea 
did  happen  there;  and  that  after  leaving  its  bottom  some 
time  dry,  the  sea  again  came  back  and  covered  it  with  great 
fury.  The  words  of  this  author  are  of  the  most  remarkable 
kind.  We  cannot  think  this  heathen  is  writing  in  favor  of 
revelation :  he  knew  not  Moses,  nor  says  a  word  about 
Pharaoh  and  his  host ;  but  records  the  miracle  of  the  division 
of  the  sea  in  words  nearly  as  strong  as  those  of  Moses,  from 
the  mouths  of  unbiassed,  undesigning  pagans. 

"Were  all  these  difficulties  surmounted,  what  could  we 
do  with  the  pillar  of  fire  7  The  answer  is,  we  should  not 
believe  it.  Why  then  believe  the  passage  at  all  1  We  have 
no  authority  for  the  one  but  what  is  for  the  other.  It  is  alto- 
gether contrary  to  the  ordinary  nature  of  things,  and  if  not  a 
miracle,  it  must  be  a  fable." 

To  this  testimony  of  the  Troglodyte  tradition,  we  will 
only  add,  that  evidence  of  the  pillar  of  fire  also  is  to  be 
gathered  from  other  testimony  than  that  of  the  Bible ;  for  the 
Egyptian  chronologer  writes,  "It  is  said  that  fire  flashed 
against  them  [the  Egyptians]  in  front." 


THE  DELIVERANCE.  263 

Miriam  and  her  companions  celebrated  the  triumph  with 
music  and  dancing, 

This  is  perfectly  conformable  to  what  they  had  learned  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Egyptians.  The  sculptures 
show  us  triumphal  dances  of  Egyptian  females,  with  timbrels 
or  tambourines  in  their  hands.  The  instrument  was  usually 
played  by  women,  who  danced  at  the  same  time  to  its  sound, 
without  any  other  accompaniment.  We  meet  with  it  fre- 
quently in  the  future  history  of  the  Hebrews,  and  it  is  observ- 
able, that  every  description  of  its  use  in  the  Bible  finds  an 
exact  illustration  in  the  Egyptian  paintings  and  sculpture. 


CHAPTER   X. 


THE    WANDERINGS. 


The  first  particular  inviting  our  notice  in  the  Bible  history 
of  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  is  that 
of  food.  Before,  however,  we  proceed  to  a  consideration  of 
any  of  the  topics  suggested  by  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  may 
be  well  to  submit  the  general  remark  that,  taking  into  view 
the  precise  condition  of  the  Hebrews  at  this  time,  as  a  people 
born  in  Egypt,  familiar  only  with  Egyptian  usages  and 
opinions,  accustomed  to  Egyptian  conveniences,  and  differing 
probably  from  the  natives  of  Egypt  in  the  single  particular  of 
knowing,  if  not  truly  worshipping  Jehovah,  who  had  just 
manifested  his  power  in  their  behalf;  we  are  not  to  be  sur- 
prised at  discovering,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  these  things, 
not  merely  that  their  thoughts  often  reverted  with  fond  regret 
to  the  comforts  of  their  native  land ;  but  that  as  time  rolled 
on,  and  the  purposes  of  God  were  gradually  developed,  and 
they  fully  knew  that  they  should  see  Egypt  no  more,  ttey 
should,  in  all  the  arrangements  of  their  new  position,  with 
reference  to  laws,  devotional  habits,  domestic  usages,  &c, 
assimilate  their  institutions  to  those  they  had  left  behind 
them,  as  far  as  was  consistent  with  the  great  governing  dis- 
tinction of  recognizing  and  worshipping  the  only  true  God. 


THE  WANDERINGS.  265 

We  must  expect,  therefore,  in  this  part  of  our  subject,  to  see 
much  which  Egypt  illustrates.  In  fact,  it  were  easy  to  write 
on  this  topic,  not  merely  a  chapter,  but  a  book.  We  will 
endeavor  to  select  that  only  most  likely  to  interest  the  reader, 
and  at  the  same  time  afford  the  testimony  we  are  seeking 
from  Egypt. 

Food. — Their  first  cry  was  for  bread.  We  know  that 
when  the  Israelites  went  out  they  "  took  their  dough  before  it 
was  leavened,  their  kneading-troughs  being  bound  up  in  their 
clothes  upon  their  shoulders."  We  are  also  informed  that 
after  entering  on  their  journey,  "  they  baked  unleavened  cakes 
of  the  dough  which  they  brought  forth  out  of  Egypt."  When 
the  small  quantity  of  food,  which,  as  we  learn  from  the  Bible, 
they  had,  was  exhausted,  they  were  pressed  by  hunger,  and 
cried  for  bread,  as  they  had  before  done  at  Marah  for  water. 

The  Egyptians  perfectly  understood  the  art  of  baking,  and 
we  have  already  had  occasion  to  remark  that  the  monuments 
abundantly  prove  it.  The  Israelites,  of  course,  had  learned 
it,  and  had  carried  with  them  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  necessary 
implements  for  the  work.  We  must  not,  however,  be  misled 
by  names.  The  kneading-troughs  here  mentioned  were  not 
the  utensils  known  to  us  by  that  name.  They  were  small 
wooden  bowls,  such  as  the  Arabs  now  use  for  kneading  their 
bread,  and  were  therefore  no  heavy  burden. 

Manna  and  quails  were  the  food  with  which  they  were 
supplied.  Of  the  first  named,  much  has  been  written  ;  and 
those  reluctant  to  find  a  miracle  in  any  thing  have  labored  to 
prove  that  it  is  a  gum  that  exudes,  at  this  day,  from  the 
punctures  made  by  insects  in  the  twigs  of  the  tamarisk  plant. 
This  gum,  however,  which  is  but  in  small  quantities,  by  no 
means  answers  the  description  given  of  the  manna  ;  and  even 


266  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

if  it  did,  it  would  not  relieve  the  advocate  of  exclusive  natural 
causes  from  his  difficulty.  For  there  would  still  be  a  great 
deal  that  is  miraculous  left :  thus,  the  gum  is  yielded  but  six 
weeks  in  the  year,  but  the  manna  was  afforded  constantly  for 
forty  years :  a  double  supply  came  every  Friday  regularly,  to 
compensate  for  its  absence  on  the  next  day,  the  Sabbath. 
That  collected  on  Friday  would  remain  uncorrupted  two 
days,  while  that  gathered  on  any  other  day  in  the  week,  if 
kept  to  the  next  day,  invariably  became  offensive,  and  unfit 
for  use.  To  this  there  was  made  but  one  exception,  and  that 
a  remarkable  one,  in  the  quantity  that  was  preserved  and  laid 
up  as  a  memorial,  after  the  necessity  for  its  use  as  food  had 
ceased.  Again,  the  gum  is  found  under  and  about  the  tree 
from  which  it  falls,  the  manna  was  showered  down  through 
the  whole  encampment  of  the  Hebrews.  If,  therefore,  the 
product  of  the  tamarisk  and  the  manna  of  the  Israelites  were 
the  same  article,  we  are  obliged  to  admit  a  number  of  miracu- 
lous circumstances  quite  as  strange  as  any  recorded  in  the 
story  of  the  Pentateuch.  We  must  acknowledge  a  miracle, 
even  if  natural  causes  be  invoked,  or  reject  the  account  alto- 
gether. There  is  no  other  alternative.  This  manna,  unlike 
the  gum  of  the  tamarisk,  could  be  pounded  to  powder,  and 
baked  as  bread.  That  the  Israelites  knew  how  to  bake  will 
not  be  doubted. 

Indeed,  that  it  was  no  natural  production,  and  that  the 
Israelites  actually  knew  nothing  about  it,  when  they  first  saw 
it,  is  proved  by  their  inquiring  what  it  was,  and  by  the  very 
name  bestowed  on  it.  Josephus  tells  us  that  man  is  a  particle 
of  interrogation,  and  the  Septuagint  so  understands  it.  When 
the  Israelites,  therefore,  said  to  one  another,  "  What  is  it  ?" 


THE  WANDERINGS.  267 

(man-hu  ?)  they  unconsciously  bestowed  on  it  a  name  which 
proved  their  entire  ignorance  of  its  nature. 

Quails  ;  Heb.  Selav. — The  same  bird  is  still  to  be  seen  in 
the  Levant.  It  is  a  bird  of  passage,  remarkable  for  its  migra- 
tory habits,  and  flies  in  such  flocks  to  and  from  Africa,  across 
the  Mediterranean,  that  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
have  been  killed  at  Naples  at  one  time.  The  monuments 
show  that  the  Egyptians  were  skilful  fowlers,  and  from  them 
the  Israelites  learned  the  art  of  snaring  birds.  Poultry  and 
feathered  game  were  favorite  articles  of  food  in  Egypt ;  and 
the  quail,  which  was  often  preserved  by  salting  for  future 
use,  was  particularly  esteemed.  An  extraordinary  wind 
sending  immense  flocks  of  these  birds  at  this  time  over  the 
camp  of  the  Israelites,  furnished  them  with  a  species  of  flesh 
which  they  particularly  esteemed.  The  time  and  the  quan- 
tity made  the  supply  out  of  the  usual  order  of  natural  events. 

The  Golden  Calf  of  the  Israelites. — This  finds  its  illustra- 
tion in  Egyptian  usages  only.  The  points  here  to  be  ex- 
amined are : 

1.  Had  the  Israelites  skill  to  make  such  an  image  ? 

2.  Why  make  a  calf? 

3.  Why  dance  and  sing  around  it  in  their  idolatrous 
worship  ? 

4.  How  could  Moses  make  the  Israelites  drink  the  dust 
of  it? 

As  to  the  skill  of  the  Israelites  as  workmen  in  metals, 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  The  Egyptians,  among  whom  they 
lived,  knew  perfectly  how  to  work  in  metals ;  and  some  of 
their  beautiful  productions  may  be  handled  even  at  the 
present  day.     The  monuments,  were  there  no  other  evidence, 


THE  WANDERINGS.  269 

would  afford  abundant  proof  of  this.     We  give  a  cut  from 
Wilkinson,  showing  that  such  is  the  case. 

Here  may  be  seen  the  various  processes,  from  the  weighing 
of  the  metal,  through  the  melting,  to  the  working  of  it  up  into 
articles.  There  were,  and  are  no  better  metallurgists  than 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  They  understood  the  nature  of  dif- 
ferent alloys  as  well  as  we  do ;  and  much  of  the  chemistry  of 
the  art  was  probably  as  familiar  to  them  as  it  is  to  us. 

As  to  the  golden  calf  itself,  it  was  (as  a  critically  correct 
interpretation  of  the  original  shows)  cast  in  a  mould ;  and  the 
precedent  for  this  mode  of  manufacture  was  furnished  by 
Egypt.  But  not  only  in  the  mode  of  making  did  the  Israel- 
ites imitate  the  Egyptians ;  they  did  it  also  in  the  selection  of 
the  animal  of  which  they  made  an  idol.  The  Hebrews  in 
Egypt  had  served  the  gods  of  that  country ;  for  in  Joshua 
xxiv.  14,  we  read :  "  Now,  therefore,  fear  the  Lord,  and  serve 
him  in  sincerity  and  truth  :  and  put  away  the  gods  which 
your  fathers  served  on  the  other  side  of  the  flood,  and  in 
Egypt ;  and  serve  ye  the  Lord."  The  idol  to  which  they 
here  turned  aside  was  an  Egyptian  god;  and  this  is  an 
answer  to  the  second  question,  "  Why  make  a  calfV 

This  god  was  Apis,  the  sacred  bull  of  Memphis,  under 
whose  form  Osiris  was  worshipped.  As  this  was  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  of  the  deities  in  that  idolatrous  system 
which  they  had  been  accustomed  to  see,  it  explains  why  the 
first  apostacy  of  the  Israelites  took  this  direction.  The  living 
Apis  was  kept  at  Memphis,  but  all  over  Egypt  representative 
images  of  him  were  made,  and  the  Israelites  but  followed  an 
example  with  which  they  had  long  been  unhappily  too 
familiar. 


270  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

Why  dance  and  sing  around  it  ? 

Because  these  two  exercises  were  also  Egyptian,  and  were 
particularly  exhibited  at  the  feast  of  Apis,  as  we  learn  from 
Herodotus.  In  the  whole  transaction  connected  with  this 
idolatrous  display  on  the  part  of  Israel,  it  is  impossible  not  to 
perceive  the  tendencies  and  feelings  of  a  people  who  had 
grown  up  under  Egyptian  influences ;  and  these  are  inci- 
dentally brought  out  in  the  casual  allusion  to  so  many  little 
particulars,  as  to  convince  the  unprejudiced,  of  the  familiar 
acquaintance  of  the  writer  with  all  of  Egypt's  idolatrous  sys- 
tem, and  to  impress  a  conviction  of  the  author's  truth. 

How  could  Moses  make  the  Israelites  drink  the  dust  of  it  ? 
The  manner  in  which  this  was  done  is  a  further  proof  of  the 
extraordinary  skill  in  the  metallurgic  arts  possessed  by  the 
Egyptians ;  and,  through  their  instruction,  by  the  Hebrews. 
Modern  chemistry  employs  tartaric  acid,  and  reduces  gold  to 
powder.  Stahl,  one  of  the  ablest  chemists,  informs  us  that 
natron,  which  is  very  common  in  the  East,  will  produce  the 
same  effect ;  and  if  the  metal  be  previously  heated,  the  effect 
is  sooner  produced.  Hence  Moses  in  the  first  instance  cast 
the  image  into  the  fire,  and  then  made  it  potable.  Now  one 
of  two  consequences  must  follow ;  either  he  performed  a 
miracle,  or  he  possessed  very  extensive  scientific  attainments. 
There  is  no  account  of  any  miraculous  intervention  of  Provi- 
dence in  the  story ;  it  then  was  the  result  of  natural  means, 
but  such  as  none  but  a  very  well  informed  chemist  could 
have  known  or  used.  No  alternative  then  is  left  us  but  a 
positive  denial  of  the  facts,  or  an  admission  of  the  knowledge 
of  Moses.  We  read  in  Acts  vii.  22,  that  he  "  was  learned  in 
all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians ;"  we  therefore  believe  that 
he  here  possessed  the  requisite  knowledge,  a  point  of  some 


THE  WANDERINGS.  271 

importance  when  we  come  to  ask  who  wrote  the  Pentateuch ; 
for  it  is  plain,  even  from  what  the  reader  has  already  seen, 
that  it  must  have  been  written  by  some  one  who  knew  Egypt 
thoroughly,  from  actual  observation. 

There  is  another  small  item  of  evidence  here,  to  establish 
the  fact  of  Moses'  knowledge.  He  strewed  the  gold  dust  on 
water,  and  made  the  children  of  Israel  drink  it.  He  was 
perfectly  acquainted  with  the  scientific  effect  of  what  he  had 
done.  He  meant  to  aggravate  the  punishment,  and  impress 
upon  their  recollections  the  never  to  be  forgotten  memory  of 
their  disobedience,  and  to  this  latter  end,  he  made  their  own 
sense  of  taste  to  minister ;  for  of  all  detestable  drinks,  none  is 
more  so  than  that  of  gold  thus  rendered  potable. 

The  making  of  the  Tabernacle. — One  of  the  objections 
urged  as  an  argument  against  the  truth  of  the  Pentateuch 
is,  that  the  skill  of  the  Israelites  was  not  competent  to  the 
production  of  the  tabernacle  and  the  priests'  garments.  That 
these  imply  a  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  an  abundance  of 
costly  materials,  such  as  the  Hebrews  could  not  have  had 
when  they  left  Egypt.  Among  the  articles  used  were  gold, 
silver,  and  brass,  costly  stuffs,  furs,  &c. ;  and  these,  it  is  said, 
the  Israelites  had  not. 

Of  the  skill  required,  we  have  already  furnished  some 
little  proof  gathered  from  the  monuments,  and  showing,  as  far 
as  a  picture  or  sculpture  can,  the  Egyptians  actually  employed 
in  the  work  that  would  be  necessary  to  make  the  tabernacle. 
Whatever  intellectual  and  material  resources  the  Egyptians 
possessed,  it  is  plain  the  Hebrews  must  have  also  had  the  same ; 
inasmuch  as  at  the  exode,  every  descendant  of  Abraham,  as 
his  fathers  before  him  for  many  years  had  been,  was  by  birth 
an  Egyptian,   and  for   generations   all  the   instruction   they 


272  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

could  have  had  was  purely  Egyptian.  But  there  is  another 
valuable  object  to  be  here  attained.  If  it  be  shown  that 
Israelitish  art  is  connected  with  Egyptian  by  many  pecu- 
liarities, it  will  prove  that  the  condition  of  things  is  precisely 
such  as  it  would  be,  on  the  supposition  that  the  Pentateuch  is 
historically  accurate ;  and  that  if  we  discard  that  supposition, 
we  cannot  explain  or  account  for  numerous  facts  that  meet 
us,  inasmuch  as  no  fictitious  narrative  could,  with  such  per- 
fect consistency,  originate  and  sustain  the  close  Egyptian 
relationship  which  we  encounter  at  every  step  of  our  progress. 

Precious  Stones. — These  were  among  the  articles  used  by 
the  Israelites.  Bezaleel,  who  was  the  chief  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  tabernacle,  we  are  expressly  told,  "  had  skill  in 
the  cutting  of  stones  to  set  them."  Precious  stones  with 
engravings  on  them  were  also,  as  we  read,  set  upon  the  ephod 
and  breastplate  of  the  high  priest.  We  presume  our  readers 
will  not  have  forgotten  the  drawings  we  have  already  pro- 
duced of  signet-rings  and  bracelets,  containing  precious  stones, 
and  those  sculptured.  Indeed,  too  many  specimens  are  yet  in 
existence  in  various  museums  to  permit  a  doubt  on  this  sub- 
ject ;  and  among  them,  are  some  older  than  the  days  of 
Abraham.  Israel  learned  the  art  of  polishing  and  cutting 
them  in  Egypt  ;  for  the  Hebrews  certainly  at  a  period 
posterior  to  this  possessed  it,  and  had  then  held  no  intercourse 
with  any  people  from  whom  they  could  have  derived  it  so 
early  as  the  time  of  their  possessing  it,  but  the  Egyptians. 

Purifying  and  working  Metals — We  have  already  seen 
on  the  monuments,  Egyptians  working  in  metals.  "  From  all 
such  articles"  (says  Rosellini)  "it  is  manifest  how  anciently  the 
art  of  casting  and  working  metals  was  practised  in  Egypt." 
He  adds :  "  The  greater  part  of  Egyptian  metallic  articles  are 


THE  WANDERINGS.  273 

of  bronze,  not  a  few  of  gold,  a  smaller  number  of  silver,  very 
few  of  lead,  and  those  made  of  iron  are  seldom  found." 

The  gold  of  the  sanctuary  was  ordered  to  be  pure  gold. 
The  monuments  show  the  process  of  purifying  gold;  and 
many  of  the  ornaments  still  existing,  are  of  the  purest  gold. 

The  boards  of  the  tabernacle  were  to  be  overlaid  with 
gold.  "We  find  "  (says  Wilkinson)  "that  in  Egypt  substances 
of  various  kinds  were  overlaid  with  gold  leaf."  There  are 
existing  specimens  as  old  as  the  time  of  the  first  Osirtasen. 

The  brazen  laver  was  made  of  the  brazen  mirrors  offered 
by  the  women.  Had  they  such  mirrors?  Wilkinson  says, 
the  mirror  was  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  the  toilet  "  It 
was  of  mixed  metal,  chiefly  copper,  most  carefully  wrought 
and  highly  polished."  Some  have  been  discovered  at  Thebes 
in  our  own  times ;  and  though  they  had  been  buried  in  the 
earth  for  centuries,  yet  such  was  the  skill  employed  in  their 
composition,  that  their  lustre  has  been  partially  revived  by 
the  workmen  of  our  own  day. 

The  golden  candlestick  was  ornamented  with  golden 
flowers.  Could  they  make  them  ?  The  monuments  re- 
peatedly show  them.  Indeed  such  was  Egyptian  skill  in  this 
particular,  that  Pliny  tells  us  there  were  artificial  flowers 
which  were  known  by  the  name  of  Egyptiae.  The  tabernacle 
had  a  covering  of  leather.  Could  they  make  leather  ?  The 
whole  trade  is  depicted  for  us  on  the  monuments.  Indeed,  it 
was  an  important  branch  of  Egyptian  industry.  But,  strange 
as  it  may  seem,  we  have  actual  specimens  of  their  leather. 
The  straps  of  a  mummy  found  at  Thebes  are  of  the  finest 
leather,  and  have  beautiful  figures  stamped  on  them.  At 
Paris  there  is  an  Egyptian  harp,   the  wood   of  winch  is 


274  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

covered  with  a  green  morocco,  cut  in  the  form  of  a  lotus 
blossom. 

Cloths  of  the  Tabernacle  and  Priests'  Garments. — The 
ephod  of  the  high-priest  was  interwoven  with  threads  of 
gold.  Could  they  make  gold  thread  ?  We  find  it  as  far  back 
as  Osirtasen  the  First. 

Many  passages  in  the  Scripture  speak  of  the  twisted 
thread  of  the  byssns,  by  which  we  may  understand  either 
flax  or  cotton ;  it  matters  not  here  which.  Did  they  know 
how  to  spin  it  ?  The  tombs  of  Beni  Hassan  show  the  whole 
process  of  its  preparation  from  the  beginning  to  its  finishing 
as  thread  fit  for  weaving.  Could  they  weave  it  ?  The  cloths 
on  the  oldest  mummies  answer  the  question.  In  all  antiquity 
their  cloths  were  renowned.  The  ancients  attribute  to 
them  the  invention  of  the  art.  We  have  handled  cloth,  yet 
strong,  that  was  woven  in  Egypt,  as  we  believe,  nearly  3500 
years  ago. 

Weaving  was  performed  by  men  generally,  while  spinning 
was  performed  by  the  women.  Herodotus  mentions  it  as  one 
of  the  national  peculiarities  which  struck  him,  that  the 
women  were  engaged  in  the  outdoor  work,  while  the  men 
were  within,  weaving.  On  the  monuments  we  frequently  see 
men  thus  employed :  it  is  true  we  sometimes  see  also  women, 
yet  they  rather  form  exceptions  to  the  common  practice.  In 
conformity  with  this,  the  preparation  of  the  cloth  for  the  sanc- 
tuary, and  of  the  robes  for  the  priesthood,  is  represented  in 
our  history  as  being  confided  to  men. 

Again :  the  cloths  used  by  the  Israelites  required  skill, 
both  in  dyeing  and  embroidering.  Had  they  such  skill? 
Minutoli  tells  us,  that  "from  many  experiments  upon  the 
ancient  Egyptian  cloth,  it  appears  that  the  byssus  was  colored 


THE  WANDERINGS.  275 

in  the  wool  before  weaving."  Wilkinson  states  the  same 
thing.  Such  too  was  the  plan  pursued  by  the  Hebrews,  as 
we  learn  from  our  history.  As  to  embroidering,  the  evidence 
of  its  skilful  execution  by  the  Egyptians  is  unquestionable. 
The  paintings  at  Thebes,  according  to  Wilkinson,  furnish  the 
proof.  A  very  common  embroidered  device  was  the  phoenix, 
another  was  the  lotus  flower.  Some  are  of  the  date  of 
Rameses  III. 

Again :  the  shape  of  some  of  the  garments  of  the  high- 
priest  affords  us  incidental  proof.  They  were  copied  from 
garments  in  use  in  Egypt.  The  dresses,  as  well  as  the  cere- 
monies of  the  Egyptian  priesthood,  are  profusely  delineated  in 
the  sculptured  and  pictured  monuments  ;  and  it  is  impossible 
attentively  to  study  those  of  the  Hebrews,  and  not  find  the 
origin  of  some  of  them  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  True,  their 
use  was  associated  with  a  worship  very  far  removed  from  the 
gross  idolatry  of  Egypt,  but  their  mere  fashion  was  often  the 
same,  and  was  probably  selected  because  it  was  familiar  to 
the  eyes  of  the  Hebrews  while  dwellers  in  the  land  of  bon- 
dage. In  fact,  the  whole  Hebrew  ritual  appears  to  have  been 
framed  on  the  principle  of  embodying  Egyptian  ceremonies, 
carefully  guarded,  modified  and  expurgated,  and  applying 
them  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  We  are  aware  that,  in 
the  opinion  of  some  excellent  men,  this  seems  to  detract  from 
the  Jewish  ritual,  as  being  but  a  modification  of  idolatry. 
We  an;  unable  to  see  this.  It  was  a  modification  of  idolatrous 
ceremonies,  but  it  involved  no  recognition  of  idolatrous  wor- 
ship. It  acknowledged  no  false  god  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  was 
so  changed  as  to  make  the  ceremonies  retained,  appropriate 
only  in  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  As  well  might  it  be 
said  that  retaining,  as  we  do  at  this  day,  the  heathen  names 


276  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

of  the  days  of  the  week,  proves  that  he  who  says  "  Thursday" 
is  an  idolatrous  worshipper  of  the  northern  Thor.  Beside, 
some  of  the  very  ceremonies  of  worship  used  now  in  the 
Christian  Church  are  undoubted  modifications  of  usages  that 
were  once  known  in  heathen  worship.  Does  that  make 
idolaters  of  the  Christians  who  in  their  use  apply  them  to  the 
expression  of  honor  and  reverence  for  the  one  only  and  true 
God  ?  Again  :  are  there  no  modifications  now  in  the  Christian 
Church  of  Jewish  usages  ?  Does  that  prove  Christians  to  be 
Jews '}  The  fact,  is  that  as  ceremonies  in  the  expression  of 
religious  feeling  are  necessarily  arbitrary,  the  ceremony 
means  nothing  but  what  in  the  view  of  the  worshipper  it  was 
meant  to  symbolize  ;  and  it  is  really  of  no  importance  whence 
the  ceremony  was  originally  derived.  The  only  point  worth 
a  thought  is,  what  does  it  here  mean  1 

The  resemblances  between  the  ritual  of  the  Hebrews  and 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Egyptians,  are  much  too  numerous  to 
be  deemed  accidental.  This  meets  us  as  a  fact.  We  cannot 
evade  or  deny  it.  We  wish  not  to  do  so ;  for  in  these  very 
resemblances  we  find  important  testimony  to  the  truth ;  nor 
can  we  possibly  perceive  how  their  existence  in  the  slightest 
degree  affects  the  question  of  the  reverence  due  to  the  ritual 
of  Israel,  as  being  appointed  of  God  for  the  outward  expres- 
sion of  devotional  feeling,  properly  directed  to  Jehovah.  Our 
limits  permit  us  to  do  no  more  than  to  point  out  generally 
some  of  these  resemblances. 

The  Hebrew  priests  ministered  at  the  altar  and  in  the 
holy  place,  with  covered  heads  and  naked  feet.  So  did  the 
priests  of  Egypt. 

They  were  required  to  be  scrupulously  clean,  bathing 
daily  before  they  commenced  their  ministrations.  Such  was 
the  rule  also  in  Egypt. 


THE  WANDERINGS.  277 

They,  in  ordinary  life,  dressed  like  the  rest  of  their  country- 
men of  good  condition :  when  they  ministered,  they  wore  a 
peculiar  and  appropriate  dress.  This  was  also  the  case  in 
Egypt.  And  here  it  should  be  remarked  that  the  attentive 
student  will  find,  that  while  the  custom  of  Egypt  was  fol- 
lowed, it  actually  was  made  subservient  to  an  exclusion  and 
condemnation  of  the  idolatry  of  Egypt ;  for  in  the  priestly 
robes  of  the  Jews,  every  thing  was  purposely  excluded  that 
was  idolatrously  symbolical ;  and  in  compelling  him  to  wear 
that  dress,  and  that  only,  he  and  all  the  congregation  were  alike 
reminded  of  the  difference  between  it  and  the  Egyptian  cor- 
responding garment,  in  the  absence  of  every  idolatrous  symbol. 
Until  God  gave  the  Hebrews  a  ritual  and  established  their 
worship,  they  knew  no  other  forms  than  those  of  Egypt. 
These  were  imposing  and  splendid,  calculated  to  operate 
powerfully  on  the  imaginations  of  the  Hebrews.  Left  to 
themselves,  in  the  establishment  of  their  ritual,  they  would 
undoubtedly  have  followed  the  Egyptian  model  to  which 
they  long  showed  a  tendency,  hard  to  be  overcome.  This 
tendency  was  met  and  limited  and  guided,  by  the  adaptation 
of  their  ritual,  as  far  as  was  useful  or  practicable,  or  con- 
sistent with  God's  purposes,  to  the  notions  which  they  had 
imbibed.  It  was  the  act  of  a  kind  parent,  dealing  with  the 
weakness  of  his  children.  All  of  the  world,  with  which  they 
were  acquainted,  presented  pompous  ceremonials  in  religion. 
Had  they  been  confined  to  an  austere,  simple  system  of 
worship,  under  such  circumstances,  it  is  plain  that  they  would 
much  more  easily  have  been  drawn  into  the  very  idolatry 
from  which  God  would  kindly  guard  them,  by  overruling  the 
operation  of  perfectly  natural  causes.  The  ceremonies  were 
a  necessity,  adapted  to  their  weakness.     And,  to  a  limited 


278  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

extent,  ceremonies  are  a  necessity  now  ;  for  man  cannot 
worship  God  decently  and  reverently  without  some  outward 
ceremony.  It  may,  and  should  be,  made  expressive  and 
significant ;  but  to  carry  it  to  the  excess  of  gorgeous  display 
or  multiplied  forms,  would  seem  to  be  going  back  to  a  period 
when  men  in  their  weakness  required  such  things.  Under 
the  light  of  the  Gospel,  it  is  not  difficult  in  this  matter  to 
attain  to  a  medium  that  is  reasonable,  appropriate  and  signifi- 
cant.    But  to  proceed  with  our  resemblances. 

All  the  priestly  garments  were  to  be  of  linen.  This  was 
exactly  the  Egyptian  practice. 

The  priests  wore  the  ephod.  From  the  best  accounts  we 
can  get  of  this  dress,  it  was  similar  in  shape  to  one  worn  by 
Egyptian  priests  of  the  highest  rank  when  they  discharged 
their  most  solemn  functions. 

There  was  a  rich  embroidered  girdle  worn  by  the  priests, 
with  the  ephod.     The  same  was  the  case  in  Egypt. 

The  breastplate  was  another  part  of  the  priest's  official 
dress.  It  bore  twelve  jewels,  on  each  of  which  was  engraved 
the  name  of  one  of  the  tribes.  This,  while  it  adopted  an 
Egyptian  custom,  corrected  Egyptian  idolatry ;  for  on  the 
breastplate  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  was  worn  an  idolatrous 
symbol ;  most  commonly  the  winged  scarabaeus,  the  emblem 
of  the  sun. 

The  Urim  and  the  Thummim.  In  the  Septuagint  dr\- 
Xcoaig  xai  aXydeia.  Here  is  evidence  of  Egyptian  connection. 
The  words  mean  light  and  truth,  or  justice  ;  and  they  were 
used  to  indicate  the  breastplate  which  Aaron  Avore  at  certain 
times,  on  occasions  connected  with  giving  judgments.  Wil- 
kinson thus  writes :  "  When  a  case  was  brought  for  trial,  it 
was  customary  for  the   arch  judge   to  put  a   golden  chain 


THE  WANDERINGS. 


279 


around  his  neck,  to  which  was  suspended  a  small  figure  of 
Truth,  ornamented  with  precious  stones.  This  was  in  fact  a 
representation  of  the  goddess  who  was  worshipped  under  the 
double  character  of  truth  and  justice,  and  whose  name  Thmei 
(the  Egyptian  or  Coptic  name  of  justice  or  truth ;  hence  the 
&e'ftig  of  the  Greeks)  appears  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the 
Hebrew  Thummim,  a  word  implying  truth." 

iElian  informs  us,  that  the  high  priest  among  the  Egyp- 
tians wore  around  his  neck  an  image  of  sapphire,  which  was 
called  Truth.  Diodorus  says  the  same  thing.  Wilkinson 
gives  an  engraving  of  the  goddess,  with  closed  eyes,  as 
symbolical  of  impartiality. 

We  proceed  still  further  briefly  to  trace  resemblances  in 
some  of  the  usages  of  the  Hebrews  and  those  of  Egypt.  To 
indicate  a  few  of  these  only  is  all  that  our  space  permits,  and 
all  that  is  required  for  our  purpose  of  establishing  that  intimate 
relationship  which  must  have  existed  between  the  Hebrews 
and  the  Egyptians,  to  afford  any  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
correspondence  between  them,  certainly  remarkable,  in  modes 
of  feeling  and  habits  of  life.  The  history  of  this  intimate  re- 
lationship is  written  nowhere  but  in  the  Bible.     All,  therefore, 


II 


280  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

tending  to  establish  it  as  a  fact,  tends  to  establish  the  truth  of 
the  Bible,  at  least  in  that  particular.  We  remark,  then,  that 
the  Egyptians  were  accustomed  to  put  inscriptions  on  their 
houses,  both  inside  and  out. 

From  this  circumstance  the  Jews  were  prepared  for  the 
command  which  bade  them  write  the  words  of  their  law  upon 
their  door-posts  and  their  gates. 

When  they  made  the  ark,  the  size  of  it  was  particularly 
given.  It  is  precisely  the  size  of  an  ark  carried  after  the 
statue  of  the  god  Chem,  in  a  painting  of  the  time  of  Rameses 
III. 

The  mode  in  which  the  Egyptians  carried  an  ark  or  shrine 
in  their  processions  is  delineated  often  on  the  monuments.  It 
is  precisely  the  mode  adopted  by  the  Hebrews. 

But,  further,  the  very  customs  which  were  forbidden  to 
the  Hebrews  seem  to  confirm  their  intimate  relation  with 
Egypt,  for  they  are  all  ancient  customs  on  the  Nile.  God's 
purpose,  we  are  told,  was  to  preserve,  by  means  of  the  Jews, 
the  great  truth,  that  there  was  one  God  the  creator  of  the 
world.  Moses,  therefore,  did  not  hesitate  to  proclaim  that  the 
gods  of  Egypt  were  false,  and  to  forbid  all  worship  of  them. 
Thus  the  Egyptians  worshipped  the  sun,  moon  and  stars : 
among  the  Jews,  whoever  worshipped  any  one  of  the  heavenly 
host  was  to  be  stoned  to  death. 

The  Egyptians  worshipped  statues  of  men,  beasts,  birds, 
and  fishes  :  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  bow  before  any  carved 
image. 

The  people  of  Lower  Egypt  marked  their  bodies  with 
wounds  in  honor  of  their  gods :  the  Jews  were  forbidden  thus 
to  cut  their  flesh  or  make  any  mark  upon  it. 


THE  WANDERINGS.  281 

The  Egyptians  buried  food  in  the  tombs  with  their  friends : 
the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  set  apart  any  fruit  for  the  dead. 

The  Egyptians  planted  groves  of  trees  within  the  court- 
yards of  their  temples  :  Moses  forbade  the  Jews  to  plant  any 
trees  near  the  altar  of  the  Lord. 

Who  can  doubt  that  the  very  nature  of  these  prohibitions 
indicates  that  they  were  specifically  directed  against  Egyptian 
usages  ?  If  they  were,  the  prohibition  furnishes  evidence  of  the 
intimate  relation  recorded  in  the  Bible  between  the  Hebrews 
and  Israel. 

We  have  now  finished  what  we  have  here  to  say  of  Egypt's 
evidences  to  the  Pentateuch.  We  have,  we  are  well  aware, 
done  but  little  more  than  furnish  a  few  items,  and  those  of  a 
general  nature,  of  the  mass  of  testimony  which  might  easily 
be  adduced.  We  are  not  without  the  hope,  however,  that 
enough  has  been  presented  to  show  that  the  boast  is  premature 
which  proclaims  that  Egyptian  discoveries  have  proved  the 
Bible  to  be  false.  The  geology  and  chronology  which  are  esta- 
blished (as  it  is  said)  by  the  soil  and  monuments  of  Egypt,  are 
the  strong  grounds  on  which  those  rely  who  would  condemn 
the  Scriptures  :  but,  to  our  minds,  we  are  free  to  confess,  were 
both  these  grounds  much  stronger  than  they  are,  the  conclusion 
would  be  most  unphilosophic  that  the  sacred  history  is  untrue. 
For  what  are  the  facts  ?  We  have  shown  a  great  many  parti- 
culars in  which  undeniably,  the  testimony  afforded  by  Egypt 
to  our  narrative,  is  too  marked  to  be  accidental.  Hundreds  of 
circumstances,  some  of  them  singly  of  small  importance,  and 
all  casually  introduced,  without  being  intended  as  evidence 
when  they  were  penned,  are  found  on  being  brought  together, 
to  harmonize  in  a  wonderful  manner  with  the  story  which  (as 
far  as  that  story  has  been  interpreted  or  understood)  Egypt  is 


282  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

telling  of  herself.  Under  such  circumstances,  what  says  the 
enlightened  and  truly  philosophic  mind  ?  Certainly  this :  that 
even  granting,  in  the  present  imperfect  condition  of  science, 
there  may  be  much  in  the  geology  of  Egypt  which  indicates 
an  extreme  age,  and  presents  a  seeming  difficulty  in  reconciling 
that  age  with  received  opinions  as  to  the  date  of  events  ;  grant- 
ing that  the  chronology,  supposed  to  be  gathered  from  car- 
touches interpreted  by  the  guidance  of  a  supposed  Egyptian 
historian,  whose  very  existence  even  is  to  some  of  the  learned 
doubtful ;  granting  that  such  chronology  may  not  appear  to 
synchronize  with  any  received  system  of  Scripture  chronology ; 
yet  there  is  so  much  plain  and  palpable  in  Egypt  that,  in  the 
shape  of  undoubted  facts,  does  rise  up  to  support  the  Bible 
story ;  so  much  of  the  Book  is  thus  proved  to  be  true  ;  that 
real  science  will  pause  ere  it  too  hastily  concludes  to  reject,  as 
entirely  false,  a  witness  clearly  sustained  in  part,  and  that  an 
important  part ;  and  will  modestly  conclude,  that  when  more 
is  fully  known  that  science  may  possibly  hereafter  reveal,  it 
will  be  found,  that  as  the  Bible  and  science  are  alike  from  God, 
they  will  prove,  when  investigation  is  finished,  to  be  in  entire 
harmony. 

The  Bible,  so  far  as  the  testimony  of  Egypt  is  concerned, 
has  established  a  claim  that  is  undoubtedly  to  be,  in  part  at 
least,  believed.  Let  her  then  have  credit  for  that  part,  and 
let  it  create  the  reasonable  presumption  that  all  she  says,  if 
properly  understood,  will  be  found  true ;  let  her  have  the 
benefit  of  this  at  least,  until  the  science  of  man,  now  confess- 
edly imperfect,  shall  have  produced  from  Egypt  what  the 
Bible  has,  viz.,  equally  undoubted  evidence :  it  certainly  has 
not  yet  done  it,  in  contradiction  of  the  Bible. 

And  now,  in  concluding  this  part  of  our  subject,  we  think 


THE  WANDERINGS.  283 

we  may  say  thus  much  at  least  has  been  proved, — the  Penta- 
teuch, or  that  part  of  it  relating  to  the  Israelites  in  Egypt, 
must  have  been  written  by  some  one  made  most  accurately 
familiar,  by  personal  observation  and  knowledge,  with  the 
topography,  the  natural  phenomena,  the  trades,  the  domestic 
usages,  the  habits  of  the  court,  the  religion,  and  the  laws  of 
Egypt.  We  think  that  the  knowledge  of  the  writer  on  these 
points  could  not  have  been  collected  at  second-hand :  it  is 
much  too  minute  and  accurate  to  justify  such  an  opinion. 
He  must  have  lived  in  Egypt,  and  lived  there  long  enough  to 
have  been  on  some  subjects,  not  generally  studied  there, 
thoroughly  instructed.  No  advantages  necessary  for  a  com- 
plete understanding  of  the  mythology,  worship,  and  laws  of 
Egypt,  could  have  been  wanting.  He  must  have  been  one 
"  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians." 

Who  was  he  ?  It  is  obvious  that  we  of  the  present  day 
can  give  no  answer  to  that  question  from  any  modern  evi- 
dence. All  we  can  do  is  to  look  back  for  evidence  contempo- 
raneous with  the  writer,  if  we  can  find  such  ;  to  seek  out,  at 
all  events,  the  earliest  received  opinions  as  to  the  authorship 
of  the  Pentateuch,  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  the  recorded  exist- 
ence in  history  of  some  man  whose  learning  "  in  the  wisdom 
of  the  Egyptians"  was  such  as  would  have  enabled  him  to 
write  what  we  have  been  considering. 

And,  first,  what  say  the  books  themselves?  They  bear 
direct  testimony  that  Moses  was  their  author. 

Next:  what  says  the  universal  and  most  ancient  tra- 
dition? With  one  voice  the  testimony,  both  Jewish  and 
Christian,  has  with  unanimous  consent  declared  the  Penta- 
teuch to  be  the  work  of  Moses. 

Third  :    when  was  the  first  doubt  expressed  as  to  their 


284  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

authenticity,  and  the  authorship  of  Moses?  Not  until  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  of  the  Christian  era :  when 
certainly  no  new  testimony  could  be  found,  and  when  no  pre- 
tence was  made  that  any  existed.  The  Gnostics,  and  other 
heretics,  did  indeed  make  some  feeble  question  of  their 
genuineness :  but  it  was  merely  to  get  rid  of  the  divine 
authority  of  the  laws  they  contained.  Their  doubts  died  with 
their  heresy. 

Fourth  :  from  the  death  of  Moses  to  the  termination  of  the 
Old  Testament  history,  a  whole  nation  deeply  interested  in 
the  Pentateuch,  considering  themselves  under  a  sacred  obliga- 
tion to  respect  and  obey  it,  living  through  many  centuries ; 
produced,  from  time  to  time,  many  other  historical  books,  m 
which  they  constantly  referred  to  these  books  as  the  produc- 
tion of  Moses  ;  quoted  them  as  such,  and  every  allusion  has 
its  corresponding  passage  in  the  books,  even  as  we  at  this  day 
have  them :  and  not  a  solitary  discrepancy  occurs  in  this  long 
series  of  incidental  and  unbroken  testimony,  commencing,  as 
it  does,  with  Joshua,  immediately  after  the  death  of  Moses, 
and  extending  through  a  period  of  more  than  a  thousand 
years. 

The  prophetical  books  of  this  same  nation  will  show  the 
same  undeviating  testimony  both  as  to  the  existence  and  iden- 
tity of  the  five  books  of  Moses. 

Finally :  the  absolute  impossibility  of  imposition  or  mis- 
take in  this  matter  of  authenticity  and  authorship  will  be 
obvious,  when  we  come  to  consider  that  the  whole  fabric  of 
the  institutions,  civil  and  religious,  of  a  whole  nation,  and 
that  no  unimportant  one,  rests,  and  has  always  rested,  solely 
on  these  books,  ever  since  the  death  of  their  author. 

Was  Moses  capable  of  writing  them  ?     Now  it  is  a  re- 


THE  WANDERINGS.  285 

markable  fact,  that  none  of  those  who  would  fain  overturn 
them  if  they  could,  and  who  have  ventured,  with  a  malice 
tempered  more  or  less  by  a  prudent  regard  for  reputation,  to 
hint  their  doubts,  have  ever  ventured  to  bring  forward  by 
name  any  other  author,  with  their  proof  in  support  of  his 
claims.  They  never  could  find  any  other  of  whom  authentic 
history  recorded  the  indispensable  fact,  that  he  was  "  learned 
in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians."  We  therefore  conclude 
that  Moses  wrote  them,  and  that  the  intimate  knowledge  of 
Egypt  which  they  evince,  is  another  to  be  added  to  the  list  of 
our  incidental  proofs. 


CHAPTER  XL 

DIRECT  MONUMENTAL  CONFIRMATION  OF  SCRIPTURAL 
HISTORY. 

Our  task  would  be  left  incomplete,  should  we  fail  to  bring 
before  the  reader  evidence  to  be  found  on  the  monuments  con- 
firmatory of  historical  facts,  not  written  in  the  Pentateuch, 
but  in  other  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

We  must  now  come  up  to  a  period  long  posterior  to  the 
exode  of  the  Israelites,  even  to  the  time  when  dissensions 
among  the  Hebrews  had  caused  a  division  of  the  tribes  into 
two  parts,  which  were  respectively  governed  by  Jeroboam  and 
Rehoboam.  In  the  twelfth  chapter  of  the  second  book  of 
Chronicles,  we  have  the  history  of  the  invasion  of  Shishak 
the  king  of  Egypt.  We  find  him  marching  against  Jerusalem 
with  chariots  and  horsemen,  and  people  without  number — the 
Lubims,  the  Sukiims,  and  the  Ethiopians.  The  humiliation 
and  penitence  of  Rehoboam  under  the  warnings  of  Shemaiah 
the  Prophet,  averted  from  him  the  calamity  of  an  entire  loss 
of  his  kingdom ;  but  while  the  Lord  declared  that  he  should 
not  be  utterly  destroyed,  he  nevertheless  added,  that  the 
people  should  be  the  servants  of  Shishak,  (that  is,  should  be 
made  his  prisoners.)  Shishak  came  and  took  away  the  trea 
sures  of  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  the  king's  treasures — "  he 


MONUMENTAL  CONFIRMATIONS.  289 

took  all ;"  and,  in  short,  reduced  the  kingdom  to  the  condition 
of  a  conquered  province. 

This  Shishak  is  the  Pharaoh  Sesonchis  of  Manetho,  and 
was  the  head  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty  of  kings,  which 
originated  at  Bubastis,  a  very  ancient  city  of  Lower  Egypt. 
It  so  happened  (and  it  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  remarkable 
faculty  possessed  by  Champollion  le  Jeune  in  prompt  de- 
ciphering) that  before  the  mixed  commission  of  French  and 
Italians  that  visited  Egypt  in  1828,  Champollion,  without 
then  having  ever  seen  Egypt,  detected  the  cartouche  of  this 
Pharaoh  in  some  of  the  engraved  representations  of  Europe, 
and  read  it,  "  Beloved  of  Amon,  Sheshonk."  It  was  four 
years  afterward  before  Champollion  saw  Egypt,  "during  which 
interval"  (says  Mr.  Gliddon)  "the  name  of  Sheshonk  and 
his  captive  nations  had  been  examined  times  without  number 
by  other  hieroglyphists,  and  the  names  of  all  the  prisoners- 
had  been  copied  by  them  and  published,  without  any  one  of 
them  having  noticed  the  extraordinary  biblical  corroboration 
thence  to  be  deduced."  On  his  passage  up  the  Nile,  Cham- 
pollion landed  for  an  hour  or  two,  about  sunset,  to  snatch  a 
hasty  view  of  the  ruins  of  Karnac  ;  and  on  entering  one  of 
the  halls,  he  found  a  picture  representing  a  triumph,  in  which 
he  instantly  pointed  out  in  the  third  line  of  a  row  of  sixty- 
three  priso7iers,  (each  indicating  a  city,  nation,  or  tribe,) 
presented  by  Sheshonk  to  Amun-ra,  the  figure  on  the  opposite 
page,  and  translated  it,  Judah  melek  kah,  "  king  of  the 
country  of  Judah." 

The  picture  had  been  executed  by  order  of  Shishak,  or 
Sheshonk,  so  that  here  was  found  the  sculptured  record  of  the 
invasion  and  conquest  recorded  in  the  "  Chronicles."  On  the 
same  picture  were  shields,  containing  in  hieroglyphics   the 


290  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

names  Beth-horon,  Megiddo,  Mahanaim,  and  some  others,  all 
towns  through  which  Shishak  passed  on  his  invasion  of 
Judea. 

Champollion  supposed  that  the  figure  of  the  captive  was 
Rehoboam  himself.  "We  know  not  that  this  is  so  ;  some  have 
doubted  it,  nor  is  it  of  any  moment  historically,  because  the 
cartouche  equally  represents  the  conquest  of  Judea  by  Shishak, 
whether  the  picture  be  that  of  the  king,  or  one  of  his  captive 
princes  or  subjects. 

In  other  parts  of  the  picture,  the  conquest  of  other  places 
is  represented  without  the  introduction  of  the  portrait  of  the 
subjugated  monarch.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  while  on  this 
subject,  that  in  the  museum  of  Dr.  Abbot  in  Cairo,  there  is  a 
rusty  helmet  and  chain  that  were  found  at  Thebes,  and  on 
some  of  the  links  of  the  latter  may  just  be  distinguished  the 
same  cartouche  of  Shishak  that  is  represented  in  the  painting. 

But  of  the  numerous  captives  that  were  once  represented 
on  that  picture,  why  is  it  that  now,  but  three  remain  1  for  such, 
we  believe,  is  the  fact.  Those  who  defaced  or  removed  some 
of  them  are  known.  They  are  Europeans,  and  profess  to  be 
scholars  seeking  for  the  truth.  Is  the  suspicion  well-founded 
that  the  mutilation  is  the  work  of  those  who  deem  it  more 
honorable  to  be  deemed  scientific  neologists,  than  it  is  to  sus- 
tain Scriptural  truth  ?  We  would  fain  hope  that  the  destruc- 
tion may  have  been  accidental.  Fortunately  for  truth,  many 
copies  of  the  picture  had  been  made  before  its  mutilation. 

It  is  the  more  to  be  lamented  that  this  picture  has  been 
defaced,  because  the  sculptured  memorials  of  the  Jews  in 
Egypt,  as  we  have  already  intimated,  were  not  likely  to  be 
very  common.  The  Egyptians  could  not  but  be  humbled  by 
that  portion  of  their  history  which  connected  them  with  the 


MONUMENTAL  CONFIRMATIONS.  291 

Hebrews;  they  never,  as  we  have  stated,  perpetuated  their 
own  shame  in  sculpture.  Accident  preserved  a  part  of  that 
history  in  the  tomb  of  Roschere,  as  we  have  seen :  it  is,  there- 
fore, the  more  to  be  regretted  that  this  picture  has  been  defaced. 

The  remaining  direct  testimony  is  but  scanty.  Pharaoh 
Necho  and  Pharaoh  Hophra,  both  mentioned  in  Scripture,  are 
proved  to  be  real  personages,  as  their  cartouches  are  found  on 
the  monuments.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Tirhakah,  king 
of  Ethiopia,  mentioned  in  2  Kings,  xix.  9. 

Indeed,  so  far  as  mere  names  are  evidence,  there  is  no  want 
of  them,  both  of  places  and  persons.  Osborn,  in  his  Onomas- 
ticon,  furnishes  a  long* list.  Thus  no  less  than  eighty-four 
Canaanitish  names,  mentioned  in  Scripture,  occur  at  Aboo-sim- 
bal,  Thebes,  &c,  written  in  the  hieroglyphics.  The  mere  re- 
petition of  these  would,  of  course,  afford  to  the  general  reader, 
little  of  interest  or  satisfaction. 

And  now,  in  conclusion,  we  would  repeat  a  thought  that 
was  suggested  in  the  commencement  of  our  work.  It  is  this : 
that  the  truth  of  the  Bible  is  not  dependent,  in  any  degree,  on 
our  being  able  to  produce  evidence  for  its  support  from  the 
monuments  of  Egypt.  If  that  country  had  not  a  monument 
within  it,  it  would  not  affect  the  genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  the  Old  Testament.  That  it  has  such  monuments,  and 
that  in  modern  times  God  in  his  providence  has  permitted  us 
to  see,  that  in  many  particulars  they  do  illustrate  and  confirm 
our  sacred  writings,  is  cause  for  thankfulness  ;  but  such  confir- 
mation, it  must  be  remembered,  when  found  is  purely  inci- 
dental, and  cannot,  therefore,  be  expected  to  present  to  us  a  con- 
tinued story  of  events,  which  would  constitute  in  fact  but  ano- 
ther complete  history  of  what  is  already  written  in  the  Bible. 

It  lias  been  too  much  the  fashion  of  a  certain  class  of  men, 


292  EGYPT  AND  ITS  MONUMENTS. 

infidel  in  principle,  but  claiming  (and  in  some  instances  justly) 
to  be  scientific,  dexterously  to  insinuate,  rather  than  positively 
to  assert,  that  Egypt  was  making  to  them  wondrous  revelations 
at  the  expense  of  the  truth  of  Scripture.  The  characters  and 
claims  of  these  men  have,  perhaps,  with  a  class,  given  weight 
to  their  insinuations,  when  there  was  neither  the  ability  nor  the 
means  to  test  their  boasted  science,  or  sift  their  artful  insinua- 
tions. It  was  for  this  class  principally  that  the  present  writer 
assumed  the  pen.  Purposely  avoiding  all  perplexing  ques- 
tions of  mere  science,  it  occurred  to  him  that  it  might  be  use- 
ful to  plain  Christians  of  honest  hearts  and  common  sense, 
if  from  the  labors  of  men  as  good  and  as  learned  as  the  self- 
styled  scientific,  there  should  be  gathered  into  one  body  and 
plainly  presented,  evidence  from  Egypt,  intelligible  to  ordinary 
faculties,  tending  to  show  that  the  Bible  found  there  some  sup- 
port at  least ;  and  that  unhesitatingly  to  reject  it,  on  the  ground 
of  any  supposed  discoveries  yet  made  there,  indicated  a  disease 
of  the  heart  quite  as  much  as  a  fault  of  the  head. 

If  in  this,  his  unambitious  effort,  he  shall  prove  so  far  suc- 
cessful, as  to  quiet  the  apprehensions  or  confirm  the  faith 
of  any  fellow-Christian,  however  humble,  he  will  be  more  than 
repaid  for  his  labor. 


FINIS. 


INDEX. 


Abdollatiph,  an  Arabian  writer,  quoted, 

192. 
Abomination  of  the  Egyptians,  what  was 

the,  151,  160,204. 
Aboo-simbul,  the  temple  of,  246. 
Abraham,  particulars  concerning   him, 

132,  164,  204. 
Abydus,  the  tablet  of,  2.1. 
Akerblad's  solution  of  the  Rosetta  Stone 

inscription,  36. 
Alexandria,  the  city  of,  287. 
Alphnbet.the  ancient  Egyptian, its  enig- 

matical  character,  55,  58. 
Amenophis,  157. 

America,  the  name  in  Egyptian  pho- 
netics, 61. 
Amosis,  his  expulsion  of  the  shepherd 

kings,  157. 
Amosis  was  the  "  king  that  knew  not 

Joseph,"  217. 
Animals,  the  sacred  ones  of  Egypt,  152, 

247. 
Antoninus,  his  name  upon  the  zodiac  of 

Esneh,  49. 
Aphophis  and  Assis,  two  shepherd  kings 

of  Egypt,  156. 
Apis,  the  sacred  bull  of  Egypt,  247,268. 
Arabia,  her  intercourse  with  Egypt,  167. 
Arable  land,  good  in  Goshen,  209. 
Archaeology,  Egyptian  study  of,  19. 
Aridity  of  the  Egyptian  atmosphere,  70, 

138. 
Ark  of  bulrushes,  230. 
Army  of  Egypt,  260. 
Arts,  the,  applied  only  to  the  useful,  78, 

79. 
Arts  of  design  plentifully  found  on  Egyp- 
tian tombs,  77. 


Asenath,  Joseph's  wife,  186. 

Asphaltum  or  mineral  pitch,  used  upon 
the  ark  of  bulrushes,  231. 

Asses,  shown  by  monumental  inscrip- 
tions, to  have  been  in  Egypt,  163. 

Astronomy,  early  taught  in  Egypt,  20. 

Atmosphere  in  Egypt,  state  of,  70,  138. 

Augustus  Caesar,  his  title  found  upon  the 
zodiac  of  Dendera,  49. 

Authenticity  of  the  books  of  Moses,  es- 
tablished, 284. 

Baker,  the  office  of,  at  Pharaoh's  court, 
173. 

Baking,  well  understood  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, 265. 

Bankea,  Mr.,  deciphers  the  Philae  obelisk 
inscription,  45. 

Barley  in  Egypt,  when  gathered,  232, 
251. 

Bas-reliefs  always  accompanied  by  hie- 
roglyphic inscriptions,  75. 

Beard,  the,  not  regarded  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, 175,202,214. 

Beni- Hassan,  fine  grottoes  and  curious 
paintings  to  be  found  there,  103. 

Bethshemesh,  the  city  of,  187,  203. 

Bible,  evidence  for,  19  ;  its  authority  on 
early  history,  23  ;  why  corroborative 
testimony  to  its  truth  so  much  sought 
for,  129  ;  its  own  testimony  valuable, 
130  ;  testimony  to  its  truth  afforded 
by  the  ancient  records  of  Egypt,  159; 
and  by  recent  discoveries,  281,  286; 
its  truth  not  dependent  on  evidence 
found  by  scientific  researches,  291. 

Blood,  water  changed  into,  the  plague 
of.  243. 


294 


INDEX 


Boils,  the  plague  of,  250. 

Bondage   of   the    Israelites    in    Egypt, 

216. 
"  Book  of  the    Dead,"  an  old   literary 

work  of  the  Pharaonic  times,  20. 
Books  early  possessed  by  the  Egyptians, 

19,  20  ;   deposited  in   the    tombs  to 
accompany  the  dead,  77. 

Bowring,  Dr.,  quoted,  183. 

Bracelets  worn,  272. 

Breastplate,  the,  described,  278. 

Bricks,  manner  in  which  they  were 
made,  222  ;  made  of  stubble,  still  to 
be  found  in  Egypt,  233. 

Bruce,  letter  of,  on  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea,  261. 

Bulrushes,  description  of  the  plant  so 
called,  230  ;  boats  of,  used  at  the  pre- 
sent day  in  Abyssinia,  230. 

Butler,  the  office  of,  at  Pharaoh's  court, 
173. 

Caillaud,  a  French  traveller  in  Egypt,  41. 

Cairo,  city  of,  85,  86. 

Calf, golden,  worshipped  by  the  Israelites, 

169. 
Cambyses  mentioned,  188. 
Camel  shown  to  have  existed  in  Egypt, 

163. 
Canaan,  the  land  of,  at  an  early  period 

in  close  relationship  with  Egypt,  134; 

subject  to  greater  dearth  than  Egypt, 

145. 
Candlestick,  the  golden,  273. 
Cats  considered  sacred,  247  ;  anecdote 

concerning  them  related  by  Diodorus, 

247. 
Ceremonies  of  the  Hebrew  Ritual,  275. 
Champollion,  his  discoveries  in  Egypt, 

20,  39,  40,  63,  64,  289. 

Chamsin,  the,  a  peculiar  and  often  fatal 

wind,  253,  255,  258. 
Chronology  of  the  Bible  in  connection 

with  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  48, 49, 

130,281. 
Chronology  of  Egypt,  little  to  interest, 

and  much  to  be  doubtful  of,  22. 
Cleanliness,  the  Egyptians  scrupulously 

addicted  to,  245. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  quoted,  20,  50, 

66,  176. 
Climate  of  Egypt,  the,  68,  70,  138. 
Cloth  manufactured  by  the  Egyptians  in 

the  early  ages,  274. 
Coffins  never  much  used  in  Egypt,  215. 


Commercial  intercourse  with  Canaan 
and  Arabia,  134,  167. 

Copts,  the,  and  Coptic  language  proved 
the  original  of  Egypt,  29  ;  Coptic  al- 
phabet, the,  used  in  translations  from 
the  hieroglyphics,  58. 

Crocodile,  the  word  phonetically  writ- 
ten, 57. 

Crocodile,  the,  worshipped  in  Egypt, 
247. 

Dancing,  customary  in  Egypt,  263, 270. 

Darkness,  the  plague  of,  255. 

Dead,  great  respect  shown  to  the,  75. 

Deliverance,  the,  of  the  Israelites,  233. 

Delta,  the,  of  the  Nile,  139,  141. 

Demotic  writing  explained,  35,  67. 

Dendera,  the  temple  of,  48,  106. 

Denon,  quoted,  253,  255. 

De  Sacy,  his  attempt  to  decipher   the 

Rosetta  Stone  inscription,  36. 
"  Description  de  PEgypt,"  the,  a  work 

of  great  importance,  30,  33. 
Despotism,  the  characteristic  of  Oriental 

governments,  179. 
Determinatives  used  extensively  on  the 

monuments,  62  ;  explained,  63. 
Devices  and  inscriptions  in  Egypt,  26. 
Diodorus  Siculus,  quoted,  24,  26,  214, 

247. 
Discoveries,  Egpytian,  tend  to  confirm, 

and  not  destroy  the  Bible  truth,  281, 

286. 
Dough,  unleavened,  265. 
Drawing,  the  Egyptians  not  proficients 

in  the  art  of,  104. 
Dreams,  the    butler's   and   baker's   ex- 
plained   by  Joseph,    173  ;    Pharaoh's 

interpreted  by  Joseph,  173  ;  remarks 

concerning  them,  176. 
Dress,   Oriental,  observations   on,  183, 

275. 

Eating  with  strangers,  not  customary  in 
Egypt,  195 ;  the  Oriental  manner  of, 
197. 

Edfou,  temple  of,  80. 

Egypt,  interest  excited  by,  17;  ancient 
division  of,  133  ;  her  condition  at  the 
time  of  Abraham,  136  ;  her  testimony 
as  regards  the  sacred  history,  18,  19, 
281,282,286. 

Egyptologists,  the  school  of,  26 ;  their 
opinions  on  the  Egyptian  chronology, 
136. 


INDEX. 


295 


Embalming  the   dead,  great   attention 

paid  to,  75,212,215. 
Embroidery  familiar   to  the  Egyptians, 

274. 
Enchorial  writing  explained,  17,  67. 
Ephod,  the,  described,  278. 
Eratosthenes,  an  abbreviator  of  Manetho, 

22. 
Esneh,  the  temple  of,  48,  119. 
Eudoxus,  allusion  to,  188. 
Eunuchs  in  Egypt.  169. 
Eusebius,  quoted,  22. 
Every-day  life   in   ancient   Egypt,   our 

knowledge  of,  increased,  78. 
Exode  of  the  Children  of  Israel,  258. 

Famine  in  Egypt  and  Canaan,  192. 

Fellahs,  the,  a  degraded  caste  in  Egypt, 
228  ;  accompany  the  Israelites  in  their 
exode,  258. 

Fertility  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  145. 

First-born,  death  of  the,  257. 

Flax,  the  period  when  it  ripens,  241, 
251. 

Flies,  the  plague  of,  245. 

Fogs,  extremely  rare  in  Egypt,  255. 

Food,  want  of,  experienced  by  the  Israel- 
ites, 265. 

Frogs,  the  plague  of,  244. 

Garments,  Oriental  and  Egyptian,  183, 

275. 
Geology  and  the  Bible,  131,  281. 
Ghizeh,  pyramids  of,  described,  90. 
Girgeh,  temples  at,  106. 
Gnats,  or  lice,  the  plague  of,  245. 
Golden  chain,  a  mark,  of  honor,  183. 
Golden  calf,  the,  set  up  by  the  Israelites, 

267. 
joshen,  the  land  of,  given  to  Jacob  and 

his  family,  203  ;  where  situated,  206, 

210. 
Granary,  monumental  representation  of, 

189. 
Greek    characters   introduced    into   the 

Egyptian  writing,  57. 

Haear  probably  given  to  Abraham  by 

Pharaoh,  1(14. 
Hail,  the  plague  of,  250. 
Harem,  the,  of  Pharaoh,  148. 
Hebrews,  see  Israelites. 
Hebron,  its  antiquity,  142. 
Ileeren,  quoted,  152,  187. 
Heliopolis,  the  city  of,  89,  187. 


Hengstenberg.his  objections  to  Manetho, 
23,  155  ;  his  answer  to  Von  Bohlen's 
objections  on  Scripture,  162  ;  quoted, 
178,  183,207. 

Herodotus,  his  account  of  Egypt,  24 ; 
quoted,  213,  214. 

Hieratic  writings,  illustrated  and  ex- 
plained, 20,  66. 

Hieroglyphics,  study  of  considered  neces- 
sary, 20  ;  the  characters  numerous  on 
the  monuments  of  Egypt,  26,  27,  30, 
35 ;  the  writing  illustrated  and  ex- 
plained, 51-66. 

History  of  early  Egypt,  information  con- 
cerning the,  21,  22,  24. 

Homophones,  mode  of  selecting  them 
illustrated,  61. 

Horapollo,  his  work  on  the  hieroglyphics, 
27 ;  not  sustained  by  ancient  monu- 
ments, 55. 

Horses,  abundant  in  Egypt,  but  not  com- 
mon to  the  Jews  in  their  early  history, 
162. 

Hyksos,  or  shepherd  kings,  153. 

Infidelity  silenced  by  the  research  of 
science,  236. 

Inkstand  found  inscribed  on  monuments 
at  a  very  early  date,  20. 

Inscriptions  on  the  tombs  and  temples, 
26. 

Intolerance  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  188. 

Inundation  of  the  Nile,  69,  70, 139, 193. 

Ishmaelites,  see  Midianites. 

Israelites,  opprobrium  attempted  to  be 
cast  upon  them,  158  ;  bondage  of,  in 
Egypt,  216  ;  their  labors  not  confined 
to  Goshen,  227  ;  their  deliverance 
from  bondage,  233  ;  their  departure 
from  Egypt,  159,  207,  258  ;  their 
wanderings  in  the  wilderness,  264. 

Jacob,  his  arrival  in  Egypt,  199 ;  his 
death,  211. 

Jannes  and  Jambres,  238. 

Jebusites,  Scripture  account  of  them 
confirmed,  203. 

Joseph,  sold  into  Egypt,  166  ;  imprison- 
ed, 175  ;  interprets  Pharaoh's  dreams, 
175  ;  made  overseer  of  Pharaoh's 
house  and  elevated  to  office  and  honor, 
170,  179;  his  marriage,  186;  enter- 
tains his  brethren,  195  ;  his  death,  215. 

Josephus,  quoted,  22. 

Jowett,  quoted,  177. 


296 


INDEX. 


Karnac,  117. 

Kircher,  Father,  his  learned  work  on 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  28. 

Language,  ancient  Egyptian,  inquiries 
concerning  the,  29  ;  peculiarity  there- 
in similar  to  the  Chinese,  64  ;  and  to 
the  Hebrew  in  the  uncertainty  of  its 
vowels,  58. 

Leather,  an  important  branch  of  Egyp- 
tian industry,  273. 

Lepsius,  quoted,  20. 

Lice,  or  gnats,  the  plague  of,  245. 

Linen,  or  cotton,  knowledge  the  Egyp- 
tians had  concerning,  182. 

Locusts,  the  plague  of,  252. 

London,  the  name  in  Egyptian  pho- 
netics, 61. 

Luxor,  the  obelisk  and  ruins  of,  71,  73, 
116. 

Magicians  and  magical  arts  in  Egypt, 
178. 

Makrizi  on  famines  in  Egypt,  192. 

Manetho,  his  fragment  of  Egyptian  his- 
tory, 22,  153,  156,216,259. 

Manna  given  to  the  Israelites,  265. 

Maimers  and  customs,  ceremonial,  of 
the  Jews  and  Egyptians,  strong  re- 
semblance between,  279. 

Medicine,  its  knowledge  early  possessed 
in  Egypt,  20  ;  the  science  of,  much 
interest  to  be  gleaned  therein  from 
Egypt,  212. 

Memphis,  the  temple  of,  101. 

Menes,  the  first  Egyptian  monarch,  141. 

Metallurgy,  the  Egyptians  well  skilled 
in,  269,' 272. 

Mexican  marriage,  hieroglyphic  repre- 
sentation of,  51,  52. 

Michaelis,  on  the  land  of  Goshen,  210  ; 
on  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  261. 

Midianite  merchantmen,  166. 

Military  force  of  Egypt,  powerful,  260. 

Miriam,  her  triumphal  dancing,  263. 

Mirrors,  brazen,  an  article  of  the  Egyp- 
tian toilet,  273. 

Mizraim,  134. 

Money, none  coined  in  early  history,  167. 

Monumental  confirmation  of  sacred  his- 
tory, 286. 

Morals,  laxity  of,  among  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  172. 

Moses,  in  the  ark  of  bulrushes,  230  ;  his 
miracles  in   Egypt,  234;  as  an  histo- 


rian, 132  ;  his  veracity,  206  ;  familiar 
acquaintance  with  Egyptian  usages 
confirmed,  214,  243  ;  well  skilled  in 
scientific  knowledge,  270  ;  undoubt- 
edly the  author  of  the  Pentateuch, 
283. 

Mosquitoes,  both  troublesome  and  abun- 
dant in  Egypt,  245. 

Mourning  for  the  dead,  213. 

Mummies,  very  numerous  in  Egypt,   76. 

Murrain  of  cattle,  the  plague  of,  249. 

Names  of  persons  frequently  changed  in 
the  East,  186. 

Napoleon,  his  expedition  into  Egypt, 
30. 

Necklace  of  gold,  see  Golden  chain. 

Niebuhr,  on  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea, 
261. 

Nile,  river  and  valley  of  the,  68  ;  a  voy- 
age up  the,  80. 

Nilometer  at  Elephantine,  still  in  exist- 
ence, 139. 

Numerals,  hieroglyphics,  65. 

Obelisks  of  Luxor,  71,  73,  116;  Philae, 

41,45  ;  Osirtasen,  187. 
On,  the  city  of,  187,  209. 
Oppression  of  the  Israelites  productive 

of  ultimate  ruin  to  the  early  fame  of 

Egypt,  21. 
Osiris,  his  burial  place,  122. 
Osirtasen,  obelisk  of,  187. 
Overseer  or  steward,  described,  171. 
Oxen  in  Egypt,  163. 

Paintings  found  upon  the  walls  of  tombs, 
76  ;  the  Egyptians  not  far  advanced 
in  the  art  of,  78 ;  a  celebrated  one 
found  representing  the  Hebrews  mak- 
ing brick,  227. 

Palace  temples,  numerous  in  Egypt,  73. 

Pastoral  life,  why  an  abomination  in 
Joseph's  time,  and  not  when  Abraham 
visited  Egypt,  151,  160. 

Pasture  ground,  good,  in  Goshen,  209. 

Pentateuch,  its  history  verified  by  later 
facts,  206  ;  its  author  shown  to  be 
Moses,  283. 

Pharaoh,  the  general  import  of  the  title, 
142. 

Pharaoh  Necho  and  Pharaoh  Hophra 
real  personages,  291. 

Philffi.  the  obelisk  of,  41,  42,  45. 

Phonetics,  Egyptian,  explained,  56,  57. 


INDEX. 


297 


Physicians,  numerous  and  skilful  in  the 
days  of  Joseph,  211. 

Pictorial  character  of  ancient  writing, 
53. 

Pillar  of  Fire,  evidence  of  the,  gathered 
from  profane  testimony,  262. 

Plagues  of  Egypt,  the,  235,  240,  257. 

Plato,  allusion  to,  188. 

Plenty,  the  seven  years  of,  in  Egypt, 
illustrated  from  monumental  inscrip- 
tions, 189. 

Polygamy  allowed  by  the  Egyptian  law, 
148. 

Potiphar,  his  office  at  Pharaoh's  court, 
170. 

Potipherah,  priest  of  On,  187. 

Precious  stones,  272. 

Priests,  the,  of  Egypt,  178, 187 ;  Hebrew, 
their  ministry,  dress  and  habits  simi- 
lar to  the  Egyptian  priests,  276. 

Psylli,  the,  celebrated  for  their  power 
over  serpents.  237. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  158. 

Pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  90. 

Quails  given  to  the  Israelites  for  food, 
267. 

Rain  and  rain  clouds  in  Abyssinia,  193  ; 

in  Lower  Egypt  very  rare,  68. 
Rameses  the  Great,  208. 
Red  Sea,  passage  of  the,  260. 
Rehoboam,  his  submission  to   Shishak, 

286. 
Ring,  see  Signet  ring. 
Ritual,  the,  an  old  literary  work  of  the 

Pharaonic  times,  20. 
Ritual,  the    Hebrew,  in   what   manner 

framed,  275. 
Rod  of  Moses,  the,  turned  into  a  serpent, 

235,  239. 
Roseita  Stone,  the,  important  discovery 

of,  30,  32,  35. 
Roscher6,  the  tomb  of,  222,  229. 
Rosellini,  quoted,  171,  203,  222. 

Sarah,  the  wife  of  Abraham,  14"),  148. 
Sarcophagi,  sculptured  over  with  figures 

and  inscriptions,  76. 
Scripture,  testimony  of  Egypt  regarding 

the,  19,281,286;  see  Bible. 
Sculpture,  the  art  of  very  defective,  78. 
Serpents,  power  possessed  by  man  over 

them,   236  ;    serpent  charmers,   236, 
I     238. 


Servants,  meaning  of  the  word  as  used 

in  Scripture,  144. 
Servitude,  domestic,  in  Egypt,  143. 
Sethos  and  his  conquests,  156. 
Shaving  the  beard,  remarks  concerning, 

175. 
Sheep,  numerous  flocks   of,  kept   near 

Memphis,  163. 
Shepherd  kings,  whether  known  by  the 

title  of  Pharaoh,  161  ;  when  expelled, 

205. 
Shepherds,  why  an  abomination  to  the 

Egyptians,  151,  160,204. 
Shishak  invades  Judea,  286. 
Signet  ring,  possession  of,  denoting  au- 
thority, 180,  272. 
Singing,  much  practised    at  the  feasts, 

270. 
Sky  of  Egypt,  clear  and    transparent, 

235. 
Slavery,  existing  from  the  very  earliest 

time  known,  143,  168;   the  manner 

of  treating  slaves,  168,  169. 
Social  life,  habits  of,  in  ancient  Egypt, 

146. 
Soil  ofEgypt,how  originally  formed,  139. 
Steward,  the  office  of,  171,  179. 
Strabo,  quoted,  188. 
Straw  employed  in  the  making  of  bricks, 

222. 
Stubble  given  to  the  Israelites  to  increase 

their  labor,  233. 
Suffee,  a  Persian  king,  186. 
Syene,  the  southern  limit  of  Egypt,  127. 
Symbolical  writing,  53. 
Syncellus,  22. 

Tabernacle,  making  of  the,  271. 

Tambourines  used  by  the  Egyptian  dan- 
cers, 263. 

Tanis,  the  same  as  Zoan,  142. 

Taskmasters  set  over  the  I.-raelites,  219. 

Temples  in  Egypt,  their  excellent  state 
of  preservation,  71  ;  several  mention- 
ed, 48,  71,  73. 

Testimony  in  general,  remarks  on,  128. 

Thebes,  its  preat  interest,  111  ;  the  hall 
of  the  temple  of,  73. 

Thunder  and  lightning,  the  plague  of, 
250. 

Timbrels  used  in  dancing,  263. 

Tombs,  the,  of  Egypt,  evidence  of  her 
former  grandeur,  75-77  ;  of  Roscherd, 
222,  229. 

Topographical  description  of  Egypt,  68. 


298 


INDEX. 


Triumphs,  in  the  sculptures  of,  the  distin- 
guishing features  well  preserved,  74. 

Urim  and  Thummim,  signification  of  the 
words,  278. 

Von    Bohlen    against   certain   parts   of 

Scripture,  152,  163,  254. 
Veiling  of  women,  not    customary   in 

Egypt's  early  history,  146. 

Wagons  employed  in  Egypt,  197. 

Wanderings  of  the  Israelites,  264. 

Warburton  on  the  hieroglyphics,  28. 

Water  of  the  Nile,  purified  for  drinking, 
243  ;  changed  into  blood,  the  plague 
of,  240. 

Weaving,  a  part  of  Egyptian  know- 
ledge, 274. 

Wheat,  what  species  of,  cultivated  in 
Palestine  and  Egypt,  177  ;  the  harvest 
time  of,  241,  251. 


Wilkinson,  Sir  G.,  quoted,  46,  171,  203 

Wise  men,  the,  of  Egypt,  178. 

Women  of  ancient  Egypt,  possessed 
more  luxuries  and  privileges  than  in 
other  nations,  146. 

Worship,  Hebrew,  respecting  the,  275. 

Writing,  its  antiquity  in  Egypt,  19  ;  ex- 
amples of,  50. 


Young,  Dr.,  his  translation  of  the  Ro- 
setta  Stone  inscription,  37. 


Zaphnath  Paaneah,  the  Egyptian  name 
of  Joseph,  186. 

Zoan,  proverbially  ancient,  142  ;  an  in- 
quiry as  to  its  locality,  208. 

Zodiacs,  the,  of  Dendera  and  Esneh, 
48. 

Zoega  on  the  origin  and  use  of  the  obe- 
lisks, 28. 


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''The  volume  is  intensely  interesting,  and  will  abundantly  repay  a  careful  perusal."—  Christian 
Alliance. 

"The  entire  work  is  filled  with  most  instructive  facts,  gathered  from  recent  discoveries  in  monu- 
mental literature,  valuable  alike  to  the  theological  student  and  general  reader." — Universaliat 
Review. 

"  In  the  treatment  of  this  subject.  Dr.  Hawks's  admirable  faculty  of  lurid  arrangement  and  dis- 
tinct statement  has-full  play  ;  and  he  proceeds,  too,  with  a  calm  confidence  of  the  strength  of  his 
positions,  that  cannot  fail  to  inspire  his  readers— such  of  them  especially  as  have  been  somewhat 
startled  by  the  bold  assertions  of  the  infidel  school  of  Egyptologists  and  their  train  of  ignore*- 
imitators— with  a  similar  confidence." — Methodist  Quarterly  Review. 


The  East ; 

Or,  Sketches  of  Travel  in  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land. 

BY    REV.   J.    A.   SPENCER,    M.  A., 

Editor  of  '.he  New  Testament  in  Greek,  with  English  Notes.    Member  of  the  New-  York 
Historical  Society,  Ice,  $c. 

Splendidly  Illustrated  with  Original  Drawings.     8vo,  pp.  500.     Uniform  wi 
"  Layard's  Nineveh,"  "  Hawks's  Monuments  of  Egypt,"  &c 

CONTENTS. 

EGYPT.— Alexandria.— The  Nile  and  the  Pyramids. —The  Pyramids  and  their  Builders.— Life  on 
the  Nile. — Philae,  Syene,  Elephantine,  Esneh. — Necropolis  of  Thebes.— Luxor  and  Karnak. — 
Dcndcra,  Es-siout,  Bcnihassan— The  Metropolis  of  Egypt— Mosks,  Citadel,  Heliopolis  — 
Coptic  Church,  Public  Men  and  Events. 

Till:  HOLY  LAND.— Life  in  the  Desert— Palestina,  the  Hill  Country—  The  Holy  City.— Geth- 
scmane,  the  Mount  of  Olives— Calvary  and  the  Holy  Sepulchre.— Bethlehem  and  in  Vicinity 
—The  Dead  Sea  ami  the  Jordan.— Judea,  Samaria,  Jacob's  Well,  Nabulua.— Scbasle,  Tabor 
Tiberias.  Nazareth— Mount  Carmcl,  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  Tyre.— Sidon,  Beirut  and  its  Vicinity  - 
Ap]«ndix,  Notes,  ice. 

5 


a.  p.  Putnam's  new  publications. 

totals,  jtantaB,  anii  DkimraEis— 3u  tjj*  fast. 

CONTINUED. 

Visits  to  Monasteries  in  the  Levant 

BY  THE  HON.  ROBERT  CURZON. 

One  vol.,  post  8vo.     Illustrated  with  17  spirited  Engravings.     $1  50. 

LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Monastery  of  Meteora, 
Interior  of  Greek  Monastery, 
Koord,  or  Native  of  Koordistan. 
Negress  waiting  to  oe  sum, 
Bedouin  Arab, 
Egyjitian  in  Nizam  Dress, 
Interior  of  Abyssinian  Library, 
Mendicant  Dervish, 
Church  of  Holy  Sepulchre, 
Monastery  of  St.  Barlaam, 
Tartar,  or  Government  Messenger, 
Turkish  Common  Soldier,  < 

Promontory  of  Mount  Athos, 
Greek  Sailor, 
Monastery  of  Simo-Petri, 
Circassian  Lady, 
Turkish  Lady. 

"  A  volume  of  more  than  ordinary  interest,  relating  a  series  of  most  curious  and  often  amusing 
idventures.  *  «  •  xhe  field  occupied  by  the  volume  is  almost  entirely  new." — Commercial 
Advertiser. 

"  A  very  curious  and  unique  work.  We  recommend  it  to  those  who  are  fond  of  cheerful  inci- 
dent of  travel,  through  lands  possessing  the  greatest  interest." — Washington  Union. 

"  His  wanderings  in  the  Levant  extend  over  a  period  of  nearly  ten  years,  abounding  in  adven- 
tures, many  of  them  attended  with  extreme  peril,  which  are  told  with  inimitable  naivete  and  skilL 
'  *  *  There  is  an  elegance  and  picturesque  simplicity  in  his  language  equally  rare  and  delight- 
ful. The  book  is  profusely  illustrated  by  wood  engravings  in  the  highest  style  of  art,  executed  in 
London.  It  is  issued  simultaneously  with  Murray's  English  edition,  and  the  author  receives  hia 
share  of  the  profits  arising  from  its  sale  here." — Tribune. 


Oriental  Life  Lllustrated: 


Being  a  new  Edition  of  "  Eothen,  or,  Traces  of  Travel  brought  Home  from 
the  East."  Illustrated  with  fine  Steel  Engravings,  viz.,  Travelling  in 
the  Desert,  Luxor,  Karnac,  Nazareth,  the  Pyramids.  12mo,  cloth, 
extra  gilt,  $1  50. 

"  Nothing  so  sparkling,  so  graphic,  so  truthful  in  sentiment,  and  so  poetic  in  rein,  has  issued 
Horn  the  p;ess  in  many  a  day." — London  Critic. 


Jov/rney  from  Cornhill  to  Cairo. 

BY  MICHAEL  ANGELO  TITMAR8H. 

One  vol.  12mo,  green  cloth,  50  cts. 

*  It  is  wonderful  what  a  description  of  people  and  things,  what  numerous  pictures,  what  inn» 
werable  remarks  and  allusions  it  contains." — Douglas  Jerrold's  Magazine. 

6 


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